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What connects sciences such as psychology and genetics? The connecting link is psychogenetics. Let's look at the basics of psychogenetics.

Psychogenetics is a science that studies the role of genes and the environment, their influence, the relationship between the traits that we inherited from our ancestors and the traits that we acquired ourselves.

The emergence of a new branch of science

The history of psychogenetics began in England. The founder of psychogenetics is an English scientist. As the founder of psychogenetics, Galton was the first to conduct research in the field of personality. He managed to collect a huge amount of material, he created measurement procedures and analyses.

Galton was the first to pose the question for the entire scientific community: “How, through what means do individual characteristics appear?” He was the first to try to solve it.

His thoughts interested other scientists, who also began to conduct research and analyze the people around them. What were their results and conclusions?

The genetic code embedded in us determines our life path even before we are born! Everything is predetermined: behavior patterns in certain situations, and our development prospects - all this is already in us from the very beginning! The entire centuries-old experience of ancestors, their signs and characteristics are stored in the DNA molecule.

That is, each of us has our own life path, which has already been laid and paved by heredity, regardless of our conscious reactions. Our direction vector influences:

• Success.
• Behavior.
• Health.

Setting goals

What challenges do scientists face? What does psychogenetics conceal? The main and main task of psychogenetics is to track and identify causes, both genetic and those that arose due to the influence of the surrounding world, as a result of which differences in people are formed.

Modern psychogenetic research focuses more on the dependence of the results of testing children on the quality of the level of the environment where the child lives and the quality of education he receives. Which factor still has a greater influence on the development of a child? Psychogenetics studies how books, computer games, and music influence the formation of temperament and the level of intellectual development.

Thus, the subject of psychogenetics research is nothing more than a person’s character, which is formed through the influence of the external environment and heredity. This is the main subject of psychogenetics.

Individual differences are also the subject of psychogenetics. Scientists are especially interested in the differences between people in a single family; they compare not different races, but rather people in whose veins the same blood flows.

Definition of types of studies

It's time to talk about such a topic as psychogenetics methods. Psychogenetics, as a developed branch of genetics and psychology, has developed its own methods with which it identifies differences between people:

1. Twin method. It is very popular in psychogenetics. Its meaning lies in the divergent genotype identity of identical and fraternal twins.

Scientists also conduct research analyzing and comparing people who are hereditarily identical, but grew up in different environments. However, using one type of study does not provide a complete analysis.

2. Genealogical method. Let's get the family tree. Just for fun, you yourself can trace the distinctive features among your family members by comparing the appearance of representatives of different generations using photographs.

However, it is more widely used in medical genetics and anthropology, but in psychogenetics as a separate tool it will provide an incomplete answer. Why? Because the adoption of psychological traits may be due to social continuity, and not just genetics.

3. Population method. The method is based on the study of the continuity of a separate group of genes. A psychogenetics method that can be used to identify any family pathologies.

4. Analysis of the heritability of normal psychological traits. This method is inaccurate, and it is never completely clear whether these signs existed from birth or were imparted over time through the influence of the surrounding world and traditions.

5. Method of adopted children. Comparison of a child with two families. The characteristic we are interested in is taken and correlated with real parents and adopted ones.

After all types of research, the results are carefully processed.

• Study of the causes of human origin. How do those features that distinguish us from each other arise?
• An accurate definition of human structure. What is it made of and what mechanisms does it consist of?
• Measuring and determining the location of individual characteristics in the character and temperament of a person.
• Identification of certain external factors that influence an individual.
• Patterns of individual personality development, as well as the state of genotype-environmental interactions.

In our time

Now psychogenetics has gained its independence and continues to develop independently along with other sciences. International associations have been created, bringing together scientists from all over the world to study and develop psychogenetics. Magazines are published, scientific articles are published, books dedicated to this science are written.

A popular and much more thoroughly studied issue is the genotype-environmental relationship in changing the level of development, that is, human intelligence. Most of the work is related to the study of the influence on the formation of character and temperament due to certain factors. The human motor sphere fades into the background here.

Now two new branches have appeared in psychogenetics:

• Genetic psychophysiology. This field investigates both environmental and genetic determinants of brain activity.
• Genetics of individual development. Here, research is conducted to determine the role of environment and heredity in the continuity of stages of individual development of the human personality.

Thanks to research in this direction, we can conclude that initially the genome already contains a primary individuality, which subsequently develops and manifests itself in a child and an adult. But the meaning of this conclusion should be correctly understood.

Psychogenetic evidence shows the factors that influence differences between different people, not how a factor affects the same person. Also, the ratio of changes in any signs is not constant; it can change throughout the life of different people. The absence of errors on any attribute directly depends on the instrument with which it is measured.

In addition, if different factors are taken into account in the measurement of a psychological trait, then the “genetically given” will not necessarily be unchanged.

Thanks to active research, psychogenetics can identify more and more new environments in which personality development occurs, and psychogenetic research is carried out directly in them:

• Family environment. An environment that is the same for all family members and alien to other families.
• Individual environment. All family members have their own personal environment, and it does not coincide with them.

So, psychogenetics is a modern, actively developing branch of science that studies how we relate to each other within an individual family. How are we different from each other? What influences the differences between people who have the same blood flowing in their veins? This is what psychogenetics is trying to understand - a very interesting and fascinating field. Author: Vera Ivanova

The basis for their conclusions were everyday observations: the similarity of parents and descendants (not only in appearance, but also in character, gait, abilities), the participation of male seed in conception, and the inheritance of certain diseases and deformities. One of the most exciting mysteries of nature has always been the determination of sex. A wide variety of hypotheses have been put forward on this matter, mostly based on the principle of balance and the struggle of opposites (two principles - male and female, strong and weak, warm and cold, wet and dry, right and left). The primacy of one or the other explained the birth of a male or female child and his greater resemblance to one of the parents. Naturally, the ancients knew almost nothing about the internal structure of the human body; even the origin of the seed was initially associated with the brain. The female egg was discovered only after the invention of the microscope. The structure of the female reproductive organs was not known for a long time, since the study of anatomy on human corpses until the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. not practiced.

• However, despite the very meager knowledge of the ancients, some of their absolutely brilliant insights amaze the imagination. An example is the posthumously published poem by the Roman poet and philosopher Titus Lucretius Cara (99-55 BC) “On the Nature of Things”:
  • "If in the mixing of seeds it happens that female power
  • It will take over the male one and suddenly overcome it,
  • The mother's seed will give birth to similar children with the mother,
  • The seed is paternal - with the father. And those that resemble, as you can see,
  • Both father and mother show traits of both,
  • These will be born from the flesh of the father and from the blood of the mother.
  • If the arrow of Venus arrows the seeds excited in the body
  • They will collide together, driven by one mutual ardor,
  • And no one can win or be defeated,
  • It may also happen that children sometimes
  • They have similar faces to their grandfathers and often resemble their great-grandfathers.
  • For fathers often hide in their own bodies
  • Many first principles in a diverse mixture ,
  • From generation to generation, from fathers to fathers, following by inheritance;
  • This is how it makes babies by lot Venus and ancestors
  • Hair, voice , she revives the face of her descendants." (Lucretius, 1958. P. 160. Quoted from: Vorontsov N.N., 1999)

Pay attention to the highlighted places in the text. Many origins in a diverse mixture - what is it, if not the Gene - a hereditary factor, a functionally indivisible unit of heredity. A section of a DNA molecule (in some viruses - RNA) that encodes the primary structure of a polypeptide (protein) or a transport or ribosomal RNA molecule, or interacts with a regulatory protein. There is no single definition of G..");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">genes ? What about the draw? This is Mendel's second law - independent combination. A little higher in the text the similarity with great-grandfathers is explained, i.e. the manifestation of symptoms known to us through a generation. Among the inherited characteristics we see voice, but this is not an external resemblance. This is a typical behavioral sign. This was written more than a thousand years ago. Isn't it amazing?

• There are also statements that can be considered as the first attempts to comprehend the role of heredity and environment in the formation of a phenotype - the totality of all the characteristics of an individual at each specific moment of its life. F. is formed with the participation of the genotype under the influence of environmental conditions. F. is a special case of the implementation of a genotype in specific conditions.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">phenotype, as we would put it now:
  • "So, although often herds graze in one meadow
  • And thick-fleeced sheep, and tribes of brave horses,
  • And steep-horned bulls under the same heavenly roof,
  • And they quench their thirst in the same river,
  • However, they live differently; and parent properties, and morals
  • They preserve everything by inheritance in individual breeds...” (Lucretius, 1946. P. 227. Quoted from: Gaisinovich, 1988)

And again, not only external differences are mentioned, but also dissimilarities in behavior (see highlighted text fragments). In Lucretius we see rather an emphasis on the role of heredity in the existence of differences between animals (in this case, breeds of domesticated animals are considered).
So, the ancients were spontaneous geneticists, rather breeders, since man began to breed farm animals and plants from time immemorial. Of course, not only the productive qualities of animals, but also their behavior attracted attention, because the disposition of an animal plays an important role in human communication with it. You will probably remember dogs, our constant companions. These are precisely the animals whose selection was carried out mainly for behavioral characteristics. If behavior were not inherited, it would hardly be possible to now have the huge variety of breeds that amazes us at dog shows.
If the development of biological science had stopped at the stage when in the middle of the 19th century. Charles Darwin's famous treatise “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” was published, then without any special research one could confidently say that behavior is inherited, since this is one of the most powerful mechanisms of adaptation in evolution. Adaptation means adaptation, and the fittest survive. Consequently, any forms of behavior that promote survival must be fixed through the process of natural selection, and this is possible only if they are inherited.
We began our excursion into the history of genetics with a mention of the views of the ancients on heredity and variability and then immediately moved on to the science of the very recent past (19th century). This leap is not accidental. Indeed, there are not many differences between the doctrines of heredity that existed before our era and Charles Darwin’s views on the same subject. Unfortunately, the level of development of science at that time and the religious prohibitions on the study of human biology that existed for a long time did not allow far progress in the knowledge of human heredity. Only with the advent of Charles Darwin’s revolutionary views on the role of heredity, variability and natural selection in the evolution of living organisms did biological science make a huge breakthrough, which resulted in the emergence of a special science of heredity and variability, which received the name “Genetics” known to us all. The year of birth of genetics as a science is considered to be 1900 - the year of the rediscovery of G. Mendel's laws simultaneously by three independent researchers (K. Correns, K. Chermak and G. de Vries).
However, the science that this textbook is devoted to (“Psychogenetics”) is essentially even older than genetics itself. The first major study in the field of psychogenetics belongs to the pen of Sir Francis Galton (cousin of Charles Darwin), an extraordinary, multi-talented man who made a significant contribution to the development of many branches of science and practice, often very far removed from one another. Suffice it to say that his scientific interests covered such areas as geography, ethnography, meteorology, anthropology, psychology, Biometrics - see Biometrics.
Biometrics- a section of variation statistics, using the methods of which experimental data and observations are processed, as well as the planning of quantitative experiments in biological research. Biology developed in the 19th century, mainly thanks to the works of F. Galton and K. Pearson. In the 20-30s. XX century A major contribution to B. was made by R. Fischer.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">biometrics and Psychometrics - a field of psychology that studies theoretical and methodological problems of measurement in all other areas of psychology; develops mathematical models for psychological measurement methods (eg, Thurstone model, multidimensional scaling model, latent trait model, factor analysis); defines formal requirements for experimental testing of psychometric properties (validity, reliability and others) of various psychological methods, incl. psychodiagnostic measurement. The term "xvii="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychometrics, mathematical statistics, criminology, and in each of them its trace is represented by discoveries and developments, the relevance of which has not lost its relevance meanings to this day ().It can be recalled that he was responsible for such ideas as the use of twins as a natural experiment for human genetic research and the use of fingerprints in forensic science.
The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin had a huge influence on the scientific interests of F. Galton. He was invariably attracted to the study of man in all the diversity of his manifestations, and, of course, he could not leave aside the attempt to understand the nature of this diversity. For the first time in a scientific treatise, he put together such concepts as “nature” (nature) and “nurture” (upbringing, environment, way of life). He wanted to understand what makes people so different - their biological inclinations (heredity) or the characteristics of the environment in which they developed.
“Biological and social”, “congenital and acquired”, “hereditary and environmental” - such pairs of concepts can often be found on the pages of books and articles devoted mainly to the methodological aspects of the study of man. These combinations, which are familiar to us, are similar to Galton’s “nature and nurture”. At first glance, it seems that these phrases are interchangeable, but this is not entirely true.
It is clear that the biological characteristics of man as a species of Homo sapiens impose restrictions on the possibilities of his adaptation to various conditions of existence, but at the same time, an extremely developed system of social relations expands these possibilities. What is more important - biological or social? For which human abilities is his biological organization more important, and for which are social conditions more important? Can humanity create such favorable opportunities for the development of everyone that biological limitations recede into the background? At all times, people have asked questions like these and looked for answers to them. To this day, the debate on this issue is so intense that it involves not only scientists, but also society as a whole, especially when it comes to biological differences between the sexes or between racial or ethnic groups.
What is meant by biological and social in a person? Biological is all the characteristics of a person associated with his biological organization. This is both its hereditary constitution and all those features of the functioning of the body that have developed in the process of development. The biological organization of a person is constantly changing, and biological characteristics may arise that have nothing to do with heredity (for example, the consequences of physical trauma). So the concept of “biological” is much broader than the similar concepts of “hereditary” and “congenital”. Perhaps it is closest to Galton's “nature” (natural). Social most often refers to a person’s social contacts: in the family, at school, at work, etc. The concept of “social” usually does not include the physical environment (climate, air pollution, noise levels, food patterns, housing, etc.). Thus, the concept of “social” is much narrower compared to the concept of “environmental”. Galton's "nurture," which is often literally translated as "nourishment," certainly includes the physical environment.
Let us now turn to the concepts of “innate” and “acquired”. By congenital, as a rule, we mean everything with which a person was born, i.e. given to him at birth. Often the congenital is identified with the hereditary, forgetting that during the period of intrauterine development the fetus experiences many different environmental influences. Thus, when a person is born, he carries within himself the imprint of what he acquired in the prenatal period. Operating with terms that significantly interfere with each other, in our opinion, is difficult and unproductive.
In modern psychogenetics, it is customary to work with more clearly defined concepts of “hereditary” and “environmental,” although Galton’s “nature and nurture” is often found in popular foreign articles and textbooks. By “hereditary” we mean everything related to human genes and DNA, primarily the diversity of genetic constitutions that exists in human populations. Under "environmental" - all environmental conditions in which the action of genes is realized, and at all levels, from the biochemical to the social environment. Thus, the diversity of people consists of the diversity of their genes and the environmental conditions that they experienced during their development.

It was most tempting to explore the origin of human abilities and character, because it is as a result of differences in these mental qualities that people occupy one or another place in society. The question of the nature of individual differences in abilities and achievements has worried people in all eras. The ancient Greek philosopher Democritus, for example, believed that a person’s mental abilities are not given to him by nature, but are the result of exercise. So, apparently, it is no coincidence that human genetics began with the study of mental, rather than physical characteristics.
The first scientific publication in this area can be considered the article by F. Galton, published in 1865, entitled “Hereditary Talent and Character.” And in 1869, F. Galton’s first book on psychogenetics, “Hereditary Genius: A Study of Its Laws and Consequences,” was published. In 1875, this work of F. Galton was translated into Russian and published in a slightly abbreviated version under the title “The Heredity of Talent, Its Laws and Consequences.” In 1996, this translation of F. Galton’s book was republished under the same title (Chrestomat. 1.4). In 1874, another book by F. Galton, “Men of English Science: Their Nature and Nurture,” was published. Thus, the year of the birth of psychogenetics can be conventionally considered 1865, the year of the first scientific publication on the problem of heritability of mental properties (see note 1).
The idea of ​​studying the heredity of talent originated with F. Galton during ethnographic expeditions while studying the mental characteristics of various races. Subsequently, he drew attention to some characterological traits inherent in famous English families, and recalled the natural inclinations of his school and university friends, comparing them with subsequent achievements. He was increasingly absorbed by the idea that mental abilities are inherited. In the preface to his book “The Heredity of Talent,” F. Galton writes: “The theory of the heredity of talent, although it is usually treated with distrust, has found defenders both among older writers and among new ones. But I declare the claim that I was the first to try develop this subject statistically, came to results that can be expressed in numbers, and applied the law of deviation from averages to the study of heredity" () (see note 2). Indeed, F. Galton's main merit was a purely scientific approach to the problem. Aware of the full level of responsibility for the conclusions that he had to draw, F. Galton took an extremely thorough approach to planning and conducting the research. He studied hundreds of pages of biographical dictionaries and memoirs, and applied new statistical approaches to assessing the extremely complex volume and variety of factual material. Many of his statistical developments served as the basis for the development of biometrics. Psychometrics is a field of psychology that studies theoretical and methodological problems of measurement in all other areas of psychology; develops mathematical models for psychological measurement methods (eg, Thurstone model, multidimensional scaling model, latent trait model, factor analysis); defines formal requirements for experimental testing of psychometric properties (validity, reliability and others) of various psychological methods, incl. psychodiagnostic measurement. The term "xvii="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychometrics and psychodiagnostics. F. Galton can be called the "father" of modern statistics. One of his students and associates, famous English mathematician K. Pearson is the founder of the journal Biometrics.
F. Galton studied intellectual abilities with the greatest care. To classify people according to their level of talent, he applied the then existing law of A. Quetelet about deviation from average values ​​and identified 14 levels of mental abilities located above and below average (7 “categories” on each side) (Table 1.1).

Table 1.1.

Classification of people according to their natural gifts

Using the results of examinations at Cambridge University and the Royal Military College, F. Galton came to the conclusion that mental abilities, like height, form a continuous distribution in which there is a certain constant average level, “deviation from which is both towards genius and towards idiocy must follow the law governing the deviation from all kinds of averages" (), and "people of outstanding talent in relation to mediocrity stand as high as idiots stand below it" (). In other words, mental abilities are characterized by a Gaussian (normal) distribution.
In the concept of natural talent, F. Galton included not only mental abilities, but also such qualities of character as energy and the ability to work hard. “By “natural talent” I mean such qualities of mind and character that give a person the opportunity and ability to perform actions leading to a high reputation. Moreover, not only the ability must be combined with energy, but, in addition, it is necessary that with them endurance in work was associated... If I can prove, which I have no doubt, that the threefold condition - a combination of talent, energy and ability to hard work - can be inherited, then in this case it will be all the more likely that each of these three elements (gift, energy and ability for hard work) can be inherited" ().
To prove that talent is inherited, F. Galton examines more than 300 families with celebrities among their members (see note 3). Among them, he singles out 415 people noted for special talent. According to his calculations, they make up no more than 0.025% of the male population. F. Galton includes a wide range of abilities in his circle of interests. He collected materials relating to the genealogies of not only famous commanders, statesmen, writers, artists, musicians, scientists, English judges, but also outstanding athletes who especially distinguished themselves in rowing and wrestling. In general, in the 300 families considered, F. Galton numbers up to 1000 outstanding people. Table 1.2 provides data regarding the incidence of giftedness among relatives of famous people.

Table 1.2

The number of famous and outstanding people of all categories (in%) among the relatives of brilliant people (according to F. Galton)

The greatest attention is drawn to the fact that the number General Giftedness is the level of development of general abilities, which determines the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. O.o. is the basis for the development of special abilities, but itself is a factor independent of them. The assumption of the existence of general talent was first put forward in the 19th century. F. Galton.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">gifted relatives decrease as the degree of relatedness decreases. Among fathers, brothers and sons, F. Galton finds 30-50% of those with extraordinary abilities. Relatives of the second degree of kinship (uncles, nephews, grandfathers, grandchildren) for the most part are not so talented (14-22%), talented representatives among relatives of the third degree of kinship (great-grandfathers, great-grandchildren, etc.) are even rarer. Among great-grandparents and great-grandchildren there are only 3-5%, but for cousins ​​this figure rises to 13%. In unabridged form, F. Galton's data are given in Table 1.3 ().

Table 1.3

For F. Galton, the main evidence in favor of the heritability of giftedness was the fact that the number of gifted relatives decreased as the degree of kinship decreased. He considers it the primary proof of his hypothesis. F. Galton's conviction in the heredity of talent can be traced through all the pages of the book. He believes that even insurmountable obstacles on the path to achievement will not prevent a talented person from becoming one of the famous. “If a person is endowed with extensive mental talent, energy in work and the ability to work hard, there is hardly any reason that can prevent him from advancing” ().
It should be noted that if “The Origin of Species” by Charles Darwin had a primary influence on the future fate of F. Galton, making the study of heredity the main direction of his further scientific activity, then “The Hereditary Genius” of F. Galton, in turn, had a great influence on the views Charles Darwin himself. After getting acquainted with the work of F. Galton, Charles Darwin noted that if earlier he was convinced that mental abilities are mainly the result of diligence and hard work (if we do not take into account “dumb people”), then after getting acquainted with the book of F. Galton, he changed his mind (www.abelard.org/galton/galton.htm). Undoubtedly, “Hereditary Genius” prompted Charles Darwin to apply his evolutionary theory to man. If in “The Origin of Species” Charles Darwin does not mention the name of F. Galton at all, then in his new work “The Descent of Man”, published in 1871, after “Hereditary Genius”, Charles Darwin several times refers to the research of F. Galton.
F. Galton's conviction in the hereditary nature of Intelligence - 1) the general ability to learn and solve problems, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities; 2) the system of all cognitive abilities of an individual: sensation, perception, memory, representation, imagination; 3) the ability to solve problems without trial and error (“onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">intelligence was based on statistical results obtained, as we would now put it, at the population level F. Galton studied rather not heredity, but the variability of abilities, and his conclusions from the position of modern science can be questioned. Unfortunately, the weakest link in both the teachings of Charles Darwin himself and in the ideas of F. Galton was the theory of heredity , or rather the lack of an adequate theory. As already mentioned, the rediscovery of Mendel's Laws are the patterns of distribution of hereditary traits in the offspring established by G. Mendel. The patterns were established by G. Mendel on the basis of many years (1856-1863) of experiments on crossing pea varieties that differ in some contrasting characteristics G. Mendel's discovery did not receive recognition during his lifetime.In 1900, these patterns were rediscovered by three independent researchers (K. Correns, E. Cermak and H. De Vries). Many genetics textbooks mention Mendel's three laws:
1. The law of uniformity of first-generation hybrids - the offspring of the first generation from crossing stable forms that differ in one trait have the same phenotype.
2. The law of segregation states that when hybrids of the first generation are crossed with each other, among the hybrids of the second generation, individuals with the phenotype of the original parental forms and hybrids of the first generation appear in a certain ratio. In the case of complete dominance, 3/4 of the individuals have a dominant trait and 1/4 have a recessive trait.
3. The law of independent combination - each pair of alternative characteristics behaves independently of each other in a series of generations.
To identify Mendel's laws in their classical version, the following are necessary: ​​homozygosity of the original forms, the formation of gametes of all possible types in equal proportions in hybrids, an equal probability of encountering any types of gametes during fertilization, the same viability of zygotes of all types.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> G. Mendel's laws happened in 1900, when F. Galton was already about 80 years old (see note 4). Naturally, he was no longer able to change his views. F. Galton's statistical approach was the farthest from understanding the mechanisms of heredity, and his object of study - man - was too complex to advance far in the search for ways to study it.
In the middle of the 19th century, when the “Origin of Species” by Charles Darwin, and “The Hereditary Genius” by F. Galton, and “Experiments on Plant Hybrids” by G. Mendel were published, the so-called theory of “fused” heredity, whose roots go back to in ancient times. It was assumed that the substance of heredity mixes in descendants like two mutually soluble liquids. Most often, hereditary transmission was associated with blood. Hence the spread of such expressions as “purebred”, “half-blooded”, etc. Charles Darwin also adhered to the concept of fused heredity, which he developed as the theory of pangenesis. According to this theory, any living organism, including humans, carries within itself many special particles - Gemmula (from Latin gemmula - small kidney) is a hypothetical unit of heredity in Charles Darwin's theory of pangenesis.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">gemmule, which are secreted by all cells and represent characteristics of all parts of the body. These particles enter the reproductive organs and form germ cells.
One of the opponents of evolutionary theory, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, F. Jenkin, argued through simple reasoning that, based on the theory of fused heredity, it is impossible to explain the existence and preservation of variability in nature. If the hereditary substance of the parents is mixed during fertilization, then in subsequent generations the characteristics will be of an intermediate nature, which will inevitably entail the disappearance of variability and, as a consequence, the impossibility of natural selection. Indeed, imagine that we started mixing black and white paint and, having obtained different shades of gray, continued this process. It is clear that as a result we would get an average gray color. C. Darwin himself was aware of the weakness of his theory of heredity, saying that at night he was tormented by “Jenkin’s nightmare.”
In “The Hereditary Genius”, to explain the results obtained, F. Galton uses the theory of Pangenesis (from the Greek pan - all and genesis - birth, origin) - Charles Darwin's hypothesis about the mechanism of heredity. According to P.'s theory, all cells of the body secrete tiny particles - gemmules, which accumulate in the genitals and form germ cells.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">pangenesis of Charles Darwin. However, a little later, in 1871, F. Galton tried to experimentally test Charles Darwin’s theory by conducting experiments on blood transfusions in black and white rabbits. He assumed that gemmules circulating in the blood would affect the color of the offspring, but did not get the expected result. Then F. Galton rejects the theory of pangenesis and in 1875 creates his own theory. In it, he comes closer to understanding the phenomena of heredity, since he believes that the rudiments of future organisms are already present in the germ cells. He suggests that there are two types of rudiments - those that give rise to a future organism, and “resting” ones, transmitted from generation to generation. In practice, F. Galton speaks of the existence of two types of cells in the body - somatic, which ensure the development of the body, and sexual, which transmit hereditary inclinations from generation to generation. F. Galton also formulates two laws of heredity. One of them is the law of regression (1889). After a variational-statistical study of the inheritance of height in people, it turned out that the average height of children tends to be lower than the parental average if the parents have higher height compared to the population average, and, conversely, if the parents are below average height, then their children, as a rule, , somewhat higher. F. Galton called this trend “regression to the mean” (Fig. 1.2).

The second law - the law of inheritance of the properties of ancestors (1897) - was tested on the material of pedigree dogs of the Dachshund breed in relation to their color and consisted in the fact that descendants inherit a smaller proportion of the properties of their ancestors, the more distant they are. However, it was not the laws of F. Galton, but the laws of G. Mendel that were destined to form the basis of a new theory of heredity, which revolutionized the biology of the twentieth century.

1.3. Eugenics movement

Speaking about F. Galton and his works concerning problems of heredity, one cannot fail to mention the eugenics movement. The term “eugenics” (from the Greek eugenes - good kind, thoroughbred) was proposed by F. Galton in 1883, but the main idea of ​​eugenics was formulated by him in 1869 in the book “Hereditary Genius”. "...It would be quite feasible to produce a highly gifted race of people through suitable marriages within a few generations. I have to show that very ordinary social factors, the influence of which is almost unnoticed, are currently leading to the degeneration of human nature, while others, on the contrary, force her to improve." (). Eugenics (from the Greek eugenes - good kind) is the doctrine of human hereditary health and ways to improve it. The principles of E. were first formulated by F. Galton in 1869 in his book "xx-="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">Eugenics as a branch of science, its tasks are similar to medical genetics, which deals with the study, treatment and prevention of hereditary diseases. However, at the time of F. Galton, genetics did not yet exist, knowledge about human heredity was very scarce, so eugenics of that time was more like a social movement designed to improve the human race. F. Galton himself characterized eugenics as a “civil religion” based on science.
In the history of mankind, attempts to use eugenic measures to improve the breed of people have been made repeatedly. Suffice it to recall ancient Sparta, where there were laws that prevented the increase in the number of defective individuals. The eugenic views of Plato are well known, who believed that children with defects and offspring from sick parents should not be raised, and chronically ill and disabled people should not be provided with medical care. Many nations practiced infanticide against those born with developmental defects.
Of course, the emergence of the eugenics movement at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries was primarily influenced by the teachings of Charles Darwin. It seemed that, just as artificial selection is carried out when obtaining new breeds of domestic animals, it was possible to purposefully influence the qualities of a person. Eugenic ideas arose simultaneously in different countries. For example, we have already mentioned the work of V.M. Florinsky "Improvement and Degeneration of the Human Race", which appeared in Russia simultaneously with the first journal publications of F. Galton. In Germany, instead of the term “eugenics,” the term “racial hygiene” was initially used.
Eugenic ideas that originated in the minds of scientists and doctors were picked up by society. Despite the fact that knowledge about human heredity was clearly insufficient to take any practical measures, eugenic social policies began to be actively pursued in many countries.
There are two distinct trends in the eugenics movement. One of them can be called positive eugenics. The main objectives of positive eugenics were to create conditions for encouraging marriages of people with desirable qualities, as well as the study of human heredity, the promotion of medical knowledge, i.e. in fact, this is what medical genetics and genetic counseling do now. The objectives of the second direction of eugenics, called negative, included taking measures to limit the emergence of a population with undesirable characteristics. Unfortunately, in many countries it was the negative direction of eugenics that received support from the state. In a number of countries in Western Europe and the United States of America, laws have been passed that limit the possibility of having offspring in people with certain mental and physical illnesses, as well as in people with antisocial behavior. In a number of US states and some countries, forced sterilization was practiced, and the entry into the country of representatives of a number of ethnic groups (gypsies, Jews, Eastern Slavs) was also restricted. It should be noted that negative eugenics was not promoted in Russia.
At the beginning of the twentieth century. Eugenics as a scientific direction was actually synonymous with human genetics. In a number of countries there were eugenics laboratories and scientific societies, and journals were published in which the results of research on human genetics were published. Thus, in Russia, in Petrograd in 1921, the Eugenics Bureau was created. Its leader was one of the founders of Russian genetics, Yu.A. Filipchenko. The Bureau's task was to conduct research in the field of human genetics, promote knowledge about heredity among the general public, publish recommendations for those entering into marriage, etc. Bureau employees conducted research into the genealogies of prominent people in Russia, similar to what was done by F. Galton in Great Britain. The Russian Bureau of Eugenics also published its own journal, Izvestia of the Bureau of Eugenics. In 1925, the journal published two works directly related to Psychogenetics - a field of knowledge located at the intersection of genetics and psychology and studying the interaction of genetic (hereditary) and environmental factors in the formation of interindividual and intergroup variability in mental, psychophysiological and some behavioral properties of a person (in Western literature the term behavioral genetics is more often used - behavioral genetics, which includes animal behavior).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychogenetics. One of them is devoted to the study of the genealogies of one hundred active members of the Russian Academy of Sciences over 80 years (1846-1924). The second was an article by Yu.A. Filipchenko “Intellectuals and Talents”, in which he, following F. Galton, expresses the conviction that in the origin of talent, heredity is more important than the environment, but due to the normal distribution of mental abilities in the population, all layers of society can be “suppliers” of hereditary inclinations of talent. Yu.A. Filipchenko emphasizes that giftedness arises due to a favorable combination of inclinations, and talented people are of interest mainly because of their extraordinary abilities, and not as “producers,” since the likelihood of a favorable combination of inclinations in their offspring is low. In addition to the Eugenics Bureau, the Russian Eugenics Society, created in the early 20s, functioned in Russia. on the initiative of the famous biologist and geneticist N.K. Koltsova. The society published its own periodical - "Russian Eugenics Journal", in which prominent geneticists of that time N. K. Koltsov, Yu.A. Filipchenko, A.S. Serebrovsky. The eugenic works of Russian scientists of that time actually laid the foundations of Russian genetics (from the Greek genesis - origin) - the science of the laws of heredity and variability of organisms and methods of controlling them. Depending on the object of study, the genetics of microorganisms, plants, animals and humans are distinguished, and depending on the level of research - molecular genetics, cytogenetics, etc. The foundations of modern genetics were laid by G. Mendel, who discovered the laws of discrete heredity (1685), and the school of T.Kh. Morgan, who substantiated the chromosomal theory of heredity (1910s). In the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century An outstanding contribution to genetics was made by the works of N.I. Vavilova, N.K. Koltsova, S.S. Chetverikova, A.S. Serebrovsky and others. From the middle. In the 1930s, and especially after the 1948 session of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the anti-scientific views of T.D. prevailed in Soviet genetics. Lysenko (he unreasonably called “xx="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">human genetics.
Unfortunately, the scientific direction in eugenics, presented at the beginning of the twentieth century. the founders of developing genetics, in the countries of Europe and America increasingly receded into the background. The desire for social control of human evolution prevailed over common sense and the search for scientific justification for eugenic measures. Eugenics fans were especially “zealous” in Nazi Germany. In 1933, more than 56,000 mentally ill people were sterilized there. In the USA by the mid-30s. About 20,000 people were sterilized.
Thus, eugenic activities began to take on an increasingly extremist character. By the end of the 20s. It became clear to most scientists that this direction had completely discredited itself, and eugenics as a science practically ceased to exist. The Russian eugenics society ceased to exist in 1929. Periodical publications with a eugenic orientation also ceased to be published (for more details, see: Reader. 1.5).
From the standpoint of modern achievements of genetics, it is clear that the eugenic ideas of that time and the social measures that were allegedly taken to improve the health of human populations are absolutely untenable. It is now known that many pathological genes circulate in populations in a latent form (in Heterozygote is an organism (or cell) whose homologous chromosomes contain different alleles (alternative forms) of the same gene.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">heterozygous carriers), the mutations that occur constantly replenish the number of such carriers, and culling patients is unlikely to reduce the likelihood of hereditary diseases. This is also confirmed by the fact that, despite the monstrous scale of sterilization carried out in Nazi Germany, the percentage of mental illnesses quickly returned to its previous level. No matter how humane the goals of eugenics were, the means that it inevitably had to use were related to selection. Someone had to divide people into those worthy to continue their family line and those unworthy. It is clear that any actions of this kind entail discrimination and, as history shows, can end very sadly.

1.4. Genetics and society

History Genetics (from the Greek genesis - origin) is the science of the laws of heredity and variability of organisms and methods of controlling them. Depending on the object of study, the genetics of microorganisms, plants, animals and humans are distinguished, and depending on the level of research - molecular genetics, cytogenetics, etc. The foundations of modern genetics were laid by G. Mendel, who discovered the laws of discrete heredity (1685), and the school of T.Kh. Morgan, who substantiated the chromosomal theory of heredity (1910s). In the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century An outstanding contribution to genetics was made by the works of N.I. Vavilova, N.K. Koltsova, S.S. Chetverikova, A.S. Serebrovsky and others. From the middle. In the 1930s, and especially after the 1948 session of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the anti-scientific views of T.D. prevailed in Soviet genetics. Lysenko (unjustifiably called by him " xx="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">genetics dates back a little more than a century. This is a very short period of history compared to many other sciences, but even in this short period of time, it managed to significantly influence the public consciousness. Rapidly developing genetics is constantly “throwing" into the information space more and more new facts that excite society. Unfortunately, a lot of tragic events are concentrated around genetics. The very first results of research on human heredity gave rise to eugenics movement that immediately swept the developed countries of Europe and America. Not yet understanding the laws of heredity, people began to carry out social activities that ended in tragedy for entire nations. The second tragedy occurred in the USSR, where Stalinism and Lysenkoism at the first stage led to persecution and even physical extermination in the 30s of the twentieth century of the best biologists and geneticists of world importance: N.K. Koltsova, S.S. Chetverikova, N.I. Vavilova, N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, S.G. Levita, V.P. Efroimson et al. The second stage (after 1939) led to the curtailment of research in genetics, and from 1948 to 1964. Genetics in the USSR was actually banned as a bourgeois pseudoscience. As a result of such state policy, incomprehensible from the point of view of common sense, domestic genetics, which was occupied in the early 30s. leading position in the world, moved to last place.
What is the reason for the tragedies that have unfolded? Perhaps, mainly due to general ignorance, incompetence, distrust of the opinions of real scientists and, of course, criminal haste and short-sightedness. It would have been worth waiting a little, giving time to obtain reliable facts, to clarify the fundamental laws of genetics, which then, with justification, could be applied in practice, and society, thanks to true science, would have wonderful results. How often does it happen that practice is ahead of theory! Indeed, it seems tempting to quickly get the desired results: in a short time to create a healthy, intelligent, almost flawless generation of people (which was the dream of eugenicists), to have huge harvests tomorrow, appropriately “raising” rye and wheat (which was promised by T.D. Lysenko ). However, all this was just a utopia and turned into a tragedy not only for individuals, but also for entire nations.
Of all the areas of genetics, perhaps one of the leading places in terms of its influence on public consciousness is occupied by the genetics of human behavior (psychogenetics). The eugenics movement was picked up following the ideas of the first psychogeneticist F. Galton. The first successful research on psychogenetics in the USSR, carried out at the Medical Genetics Institute in the late 20s - early 30s, was forcibly stopped, since the ideology of the state demanded the education of unified members of a socialist society, while genetics increasingly forced us to think about genetic individuality each person.
Foreign genetics of human behavior (psychogenetics), especially in the United States, is constantly included in events surrounding racial politics. At times, the controversy on racial issues intensifies, and often this coincides with some scientific publications in the field of Psychogenetics - a field of knowledge located at the intersection of genetics and psychology and studying the interaction of genetic (hereditary) and environmental factors in the formation of interindividual and intergroup variability in mental, psychophysiological and some behavioral human properties (in Western literature the term behavioral genetics is more often used - behavioral genetics, which includes animal behavior).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychogenetics. So, in the 70s. In the 20th century, there was intense controversy surrounding the heritability coefficient. Intelligence - 1) the general ability to learn and solve problems, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities; 2) the system of all cognitive abilities of an individual: sensation, perception, memory, representation, imagination; 3) the ability to solve problems without trial and error (“onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">intelligence and racial politics after the publication of an article by the famous psychologist Arthur Jensen entitled “How Much Can We Increase IQ and school performance?
Intellectual tests, which began to be created at the end of the 19th century. students and followers of F. Galton, in the twentieth century. continued to improve by the end of the 60s. have already been widely used for testing in developed Western countries, especially in the USA. Tests were developed not only for adults, but also for children. Based on the test results, children were selected for training in various programs. Thus, education policy increasingly depended on the development of Psychodiagnostics (English psychodiagnostics; from Greek psyche - soul + diagnosis - recognition, determination) - the science and practice of making a psychological diagnosis, i.e. determining the presence and severity of certain psychological signs in a person. Synonym: psychological diagnostics. The object of P. can be skills, abilities, general and special abilities, dynamic characteristics of mental processes, mental states, motives, needs, interests, personality traits, etc.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> psychodiagnostics .
By that time, extensive factual material had already been accumulated on intergroup differences in the Intelligence Quotient (IQ), i.e. IQ is the ratio of mental age to the chronological age of an individual, expressed as a percentage. K.i. This is a purely relative indicator: it reflects only the level of performance of this particular intelligence test and cannot unconditionally serve as an indicator of the development of the intellectual abilities of the subject.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">IQ . In particular, the presence of statistically significant interracial differences was consistently confirmed: the black population of the United States during testing consistently gave lower results than the white population. Simultaneously with psychodiagnostics, psychogenetics also developed, and mainly studied Cognitive - cognitive.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">cognitive characteristics (approximately 80% of works). Estimates of the heritability of IQ could be found in most publications. Due to the insufficient perfection of methods, quantitative estimates of IQ heritability were at that time somewhat overestimated (0.7-0.8) compared to those that are currently accepted (about 0.5). In other words, the variability of people in their intellectual characteristics was 70-80% described by genetic variability and only 20-30% by environmental differences. Specialists competent in the field of quantitative genetics are well acquainted with the features of the statistical indicator, which is called the heritability coefficient and is denoted by the symbol h2. This quantitative indicator is an estimate of the share of the hereditary component of population variability, i.e. its value ranges from 0 to 1.0 (or from 0 to 100%). If a study obtains an estimate of the heritability of intelligence equal to 70%, this should be understood as follows: the variability of IQ in the studied population is 70% determined by the genetic diversity of individuals and 30% by the diversity of their environmental conditions. Thus, the heritability coefficient is a characteristic of the population and has nothing to do with the assessment of hereditary and environmental influences on the level of intelligence of a particular individual. In addition, the heritability coefficient depends on the genetic composition of that particular population and may change if another population with a different gene pool is examined. The heritability coefficient of the same trait can also change with changes in the environment in which the population is located. Paradoxical as it may sound, but Heritability is a quantitative characteristic that evaluates the contribution of the genotypic component to the population variability of a trait.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> heritability coefficient, really does not characterize the trait itself (in our case, IQ) and in no way indicates how many percent the development of the trait in a particular individual depends on his genetic constitution. However, most ignorant people believe that the expression “intelligence is 70% inherited” should be taken literally. In other words, they believe that their own intelligence or the intelligence of their child is 70% determined by heredity and only 30% depends on upbringing, education and other environment. In subsequent sections of the textbook, we will consider in detail the features of the heritability coefficient and try to explain why this interpretation is incorrect.
Let us return to the problem of racial politics in connection with psychogenetic data on the heritability of intelligence. In the 70s few people understood the intricacies regarding the heritability coefficient (however, even now the situation is little better). Naturally, high estimates of IQ heritability were perceived as evidence of limited opportunities for the development of intelligence under the influence of the environment. In other words, it turned out that the owners of low mental abilities, inherited by them due to an unsuccessful combination, Gene is a hereditary factor, a functionally indivisible unit of heredity. A section of a DNA molecule (in some viruses - RNA) that encodes the primary structure of a polypeptide (protein) or a transport or ribosomal RNA molecule, or interacts with a regulatory protein. There is no single definition of G..");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">genes of their parents, could not count on a significant increase in their Intelligence - 1) the general ability to learn and solve problems, which determines the success of any activity and underlies other abilities; 2) the system of all cognitive abilities of an individual: sensation, perception, memory, representation, imagination; 3) the ability to solve problems without trial and error (“onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">intelligence due to environmental conditions (including education). Among people with lower ("naturally"), people with black skin also had abilities. It turned out that society can hardly help the development of people's abilities if they are not genetically endowed. If you take this point of view, then there is no need for a high level of education for everyone. You can teach only a select few. At the same time, the state will spend much less money. Educating mentally disabled people may not make sense at all. Less spending will also be spent on social policy.
Indeed, it turned out that psychogenetic data, interpreted incorrectly, were used to justify the policy of discrimination. Once again, in the history of human genetics, a situation arose when scientific facts confirming the existence of genetic diversity in human populations (and it indeed exists) were interpreted in such a way as to justify the policy of social inequality (see note 5) (Reader 1.6).
No one will deny that differences between people exist. Each person is unique both in his appearance (physique, color of eyes, hair, skin, etc.) and behavioral characteristics (gait, gestures, facial expressions, speech patterns). Modern psychology has extensive tools for measuring differences between people on numerous psychological parameters. Many tests demonstrate that people differ in intellectual, creative, artistic and musical abilities, temperament, motivation, personality traits, etc. The origin of biological and social inequality between people has always been the subject of much debate.
In addition to differences between individuals, psychologists often find that there are statistically significant differences between groups of people differing in gender, age, social status, ethnicity and other parameters. The existence of intergroup differences also often generates increased public interest. In addition to the already mentioned racial differences, differences between the sexes are quite hotly debated. For example, it turns out that on average, men demonstrate higher emotional stability than women. The differences between the average ratings of emotional stability of men and women are quite small (Figure 1.3), however, as a rule, people tend to exaggerate the significance of intergroup differences. Most people have the impression that all women, without exception, are less emotionally stable than men. In fact, as can be seen from the graph, only at the edges of the distribution (for approximately 1%). A population is a collection of individuals of the same species that have a common gene pool and occupy a certain territory. Contacts between individuals of the same population occur more often than between individuals of different populations. This is manifested at a higher level of panmixia.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">populations) such a statement has a right to exist. In other words, the group of extremely emotionally stable people is dominated by men, and the group of extremely emotionally unstable people is dominated by women. In general, there is a large overlapping area in which both men and women can be found with similar ratings of emotional stability. Data on interracial differences in assessments of mental abilities are perceived in the same way: people think that all blacks are “stupid” than whites. In a society where equal rights are declared regardless of race and gender, scientific data indicating the existence of differences between races and genders is always perceived painfully, especially when it comes to socially significant psychological characteristics.

The presence of intergroup differences in itself attracts increased interest from society. In addition, it often turns out that the same characteristics according to Psychogenetics is a field of knowledge located at the intersection of genetics and psychology and studies the interaction of genetic (hereditary) and environmental factors in the formation of interindividual and intergroup variability in mental, psychophysiological and some behavioral properties of a person (in Western In the literature, the term behavioral genetics is more often used - the genetics of behavior, including animal behavior).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychogenetics have a fairly high heritability (we emphasize once again that by “heritability” we mean the same h2, the features of which were discussed above). There is a natural desire not only to focus attention on the very fact of the existence of intergroup differences, but also to connect them with heredity, i.e. explain by natural differences that cannot be changed, which is absolutely wrong. This interpretation is quite typical for the media that convey scientific achievements to the population. Unfortunately, some scientists not only make no effort to correct the situation, but also intentionally or unintentionally “add fuel to the fire” by publishing highly controversial statements as the ultimate truth. This was the publication of A. Jensen in 1969.
Unfortunately, the history of psychogenetics is not free from examples of direct falsification of data in order to obtain the desired result. We are talking about the notorious "studies" of the famous English psychologist Sir Cyril Burt. S. Burt in 1955 published the results of a study performed on identical twins separated in early childhood, which showed impressive statistics about the amazing similarity of separated twins. In 1974, Princeton psychologist Leon Kamin, analyzing the work of S. Burt, discovered coincidences of some numbers that seemed unlikely to him. After carefully reviewing and comparing S. Burt's data, Kamin came to the conclusion that S. Burt was dishonest, and he was accused of scientific fraud.
Currently, in the West there is clearly an intensification of the eugenics debate. Increasingly, books and articles are appearing that cause lively discussion not only in scientific circles, but also in society as a whole (see note 6). Everything suggests that the ideas formulated by F. Galton at the end of the 18th century and which captured the minds of the then elite and intelligentsia, apparently continue to exist latently and, at the slightest opportunity, make their way again. The current revival of the eugenics movement can be associated with the rapid development of human genetics, thanks to the successful collaboration of scientists around the world within the framework of the international Human Genome Project.

1.5. Psychogenetics in the Human Genome Project

The international Human Genome Project was initiated due to numerous discoveries in the field of molecular genetics in the second half of the twentieth century. These discoveries were awarded a number of Nobel Prizes. If at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. man was the most difficult object for genetic research (the impossibility of using most experimental techniques, a long change of generations, a small number of offspring, ethical barriers), then with the development of molecular genetics by the end of the twentieth century. It became possible to obtain sufficient quantities of human DNA samples and use them for genetic research. One of the main achievements of molecular genetics at the end of the twentieth century. was the discovery of DNA Polymorphism is the presence within one species of individuals that differ sharply in some characteristic and do not have transitional forms.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">polymorphisms, i.e. variations in the fine structure Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid, a polymer consisting of deoxyribonucleotides (see Nucleic acids, Nucleotides), containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine as nitrogenous bases. It is the main carrier of genetic information and is part of the chromosomes.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">DNA, which distinguishes one person from another and is a reflection of past mutations.
This discovery made it possible to make very rapid progress in decoding the genetic sequences of human DNA and in the localization of genes on Chromosomes are organelles of the cell nucleus that are carriers of genetic information and determine the hereditary properties of cells and organisms.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">chromosomes. It became obvious that the entire human genome could be completely deciphered. At the end of the 80s. The first funds were allocated for this project. The director of the project was James Watson, an American geneticist widely known throughout the world as one of the discoverers of the “double helix” (DNA molecule). In October 1988, at the launch of the project, J. Watson pledged that 3% of annual funding (that's 3% of $200 million each year) would be allocated to support related research and discussion of ethical, legal and social issues, in including in connection with possible discoveries of genes related to human behavioral and psychological characteristics.
When the project first began, it seemed that it would take at least 20 years to complete. However, already in 2000, through the efforts of scientists around the world Genome - 1) a set of genes of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism. G. is a characteristic of a biological species; 2) all the DNA of an individual cell or organism.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">genome person was read. It can be compared to a book that contains a sequence of characters 800 times longer than the Bible, but the meaning of most of the “sentences” in the text of the book is still unclear to us, and it will take many years to decipher it. The more text of our genome can be unraveled, the more opportunities there will be for the prevention and treatment of hereditary diseases, including those that affect the human mental sphere.
It is not surprising that the Human Genome Project devotes significant funds to behavioral genetics research. In addition to severe mental disorders, such as schizophrenia (from the Greek schizo - split, split +phren - soul, mind, reason) - a mental illness that occurs chronically in the form of attacks or continuously, leads to characteristic similar personality changes with disorganization of mental functions. This disorder was identified as a single disease. psychiatrist E. Kraepelin (1896), who called it “dementia="" praecox="">The risk of Sh.'s disease is especially high in adolescence (3-4 times higher than throughout the rest of life). At the age of 10- 19 years old accounts for 31-32% of the onset of schizophrenia; the risk of the disease in boys is 1.5 times higher than in girls.");" onmouseout=nd(); href="javascript:void(0);">schizophrenia, manic-depressive psychosis, dementia, various forms of deviant behavior (alcohol, drug and other forms of addiction, a tendency to cruelty and violence, sexual deviations) also attract the attention of scientists.The hereditary and environmental causes of developmental deviations leading to reading and writing impairments are also widely studied and numeracy in children, hyperactivity and attention deficit, emotional and behavioral disorders.Geneticists and psychologists continue to be attracted by the problem of heritability of normal psychological traits associated with the cognitive and personal spheres of a person.
We can say that in the 90s. XX century Psychogenetics is a field of knowledge located at the intersection of genetics and psychology and studies the interaction of genetic (hereditary) and environmental factors in the formation of interindividual and intergroup variability in mental, psychophysiological and some behavioral properties of a person (in Western literature the term behavioral genetics is more often used - behavior genetics, including animal behavior).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychogenetics has stepped into a new, molecular era. Previously, its capabilities were limited to variational and statistical methods of quantitative Genetics (from the Greek genesis - origin) - the science of the laws of heredity and variability of organisms and methods of controlling them. Depending on the object of study, the genetics of microorganisms, plants, animals and humans are distinguished, and depending on the level of research - molecular genetics, cytogenetics, etc. The foundations of modern genetics were laid by G. Mendel, who discovered the laws of discrete heredity (1685), and the school of T.Kh. Morgan, who substantiated the chromosomal theory of heredity (1910s). In the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century An outstanding contribution to genetics was made by the works of N.I. Vavilova, N.K. Koltsova, S.S. Chetverikova, A.S. Serebrovsky and others. From the middle. In the 1930s, and especially after the 1948 session of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the anti-scientific views of T.D. prevailed in Soviet genetics. Lysenko (unreasonably called by him “xx="" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">geneticists, who only made it possible to state the participation of the genotype in the formation of population variability for one or another psychological trait. Now However, thanks to the development of molecular genetics, it became possible to study the mechanisms of hereditary determination of behavior.
Wide possibilities of modern genetics and medicine associated with the development and application of genetic engineering methods and other Biotechnology - the use of living organisms and biological processes for applied purposes, including in industrial production. Examples of B. include microbiological synthesis of enzymes, vitamins, and antibiotics; obtaining biologically active substances; Genetic Engineering; use of cell cultures, etc.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">biotechnologies already now make it possible to intervene in the natural course of development and directly in the human genetic apparatus (gene therapy). Further improvement and development of these methods will make it possible to apply them on an ever wider scale. Naturally, humanity faces questions related to the legal and ethical side of such intervention. These aspects of modern human genetics are widely discussed on the pages of scientific and popular science journals, in the media, and at various symposia and congresses. In connection with new discoveries and increased interest in research in the field of behavioral genetics, numerous educational modules are being developed not only for students, but also for specialists dealing with individuals demonstrating deviant behavior (English deviation - deviation) - actions that do not correspond to officially established or the moral and legal norms actually established in a given society (social group) and leading the offender (deviant) to isolation, treatment, correction or punishment. The main types of crime: crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, prostitution, sexual deviations. Synonyms - deviant behavior, deviation.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> deviant forms of behavior(for example, for legal officials).
We can say that thanks to the Human Genome Project, psychogenetics and behavioral genetics in general have gained a broad perspective for further development, and perhaps the hour is not far off when humanity will find ways to prevent and prevent severe hereditary diseases that affect the human brain.

1.6. Psychogenetics and genetics of animal behavior

We have already mentioned that psychogenetics is part of a larger field of knowledge that can be called behavioral genetics. Behavioral genetics includes, in addition to psychogenetics, the genetics of animal behavior. Research on the genetics of animal behavior has been ongoing all over the world since the 10s. XX century If psychogenetics is developed mainly by psychologists, then biologists work mostly in the genetics of animal behavior. The methods used in this field are typical of classical Mendelian genetics (crossing, inbreeding, selection). Recently, in the genetics of animal behavior, an independent direction has emerged related to the study of the work of genes at the level of an individual neuron - brain genetics, or neurogenetics (Reader 1.7). Thanks to the wide possibilities of experimentation, the genetics of animal behavior has a much better chance than psychogenetics of getting closer to understanding the subtle mechanisms of inheritance of behavioral traits.
Since the genetics of animal behavior and psychogenetics use completely different experimental techniques and solve different problems, they do not have many points of contact. As a result, both of these areas are developing relatively independently. We can say that the genetics of animal behavior can make do with its own capabilities and not be interested in what is being done by psychogeneticists. In fact, this is true. However, psychogeneticists cannot do without the genetics of animal behavior, since animals can be used to model many human conditions, including various mental illnesses. The use of animal modeling is one of the methods for studying the mechanisms of inheritance of human behavioral characteristics, since many processes in the nervous system and metabolic features are common to most mammals, including humans. The most favorite research subjects in behavioral genetics are mice and rats. It was on them that convulsive states, catatonia, alcoholism, stress, and Alzheimer's disease were modeled. Learning processes are also modeled in mice and rats, and hereditary and environmental causes of emotionality and aggressiveness are studied.
The genetic apparatus of mice and humans has a lot in common. Approximately 90% of human genes are present on mouse chromosomes. The amount of DNA in cell nuclei is also the same - 6x10-6 μg. This, at first glance, surprising similarity is explained by the commonality of the evolution of mammals, because our genes record the entire path of evolutionary development, and it is largely the same in all mammals. Therefore, mouse chromosomes contain many regions that are also characteristic of humans.
The genetics of animal behavior goes back to ancient times, since the breeding of domestic animal breeds was aimed not only at selecting the necessary morphological characteristics, but also at various behavioral qualities, especially in dog breeds. The genetics of animal behavior as a scientific field arose in the 10s. XX century. The first experimental study was devoted to the study of the inheritance of the complex of anger, fearfulness and savagery in rats. It was published in 1913 by American researcher Ada Yerkes. In our country, the first work on the genetics of animal behavior was carried out in the 20s. M.P. Sadovnikova-Koltsova. She selected rats for running speed in an experimental setup.
A major event in the history of behavioral genetics was the creation in the United States in 1929 of a special center for the study of behavioral genetics. This is the world famous Jackson Laboratory, the founder of which was the geneticist K. Little. At the center there is a collection of Inbred line - a group of individuals obtained as a result of closely related crossing (inbreeding). Individuals belonging to one I.L. are characterized by a high degree of homozygosity for most genes (See also Pure line).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">inbred and selected strains of mice, which contain dozens of mutations affecting brain structure and behavior. This center supplies experimental animals to various laboratories around the world. In our country, the first laboratory of behavioral genetics was created during I.P.’s lifetime. Pavlova in Koltushi near Leningrad. It was called the Laboratory of Genetics of Higher Nervous Activity. It studied the hereditary characteristics of conditioned reflex activity (types of GND) in dogs. After this, several more laboratories arose, including in Moscow at the Department of Higher Nervous Activity of Moscow State University and in Novosibirsk at the Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The founders of these laboratories were M.E. Lobashev and V.K. Fedorov in Leningrad, L.V. Krushinsky in Moscow, and D.K. Belyaev in Novosibirsk.
Various approaches are used in the genetics of animal behavior. One of the most common is the selection of animals (most often rats or mice) for high and low rates of a behavioral trait (for example, speed of learning in a maze). By artificially selecting “stupid” and “smart” animals, as a rule, it is possible to obtain lines with significant differences in behavior. This may take 10-20 generations. Often they use already existing, so-called inbred (see note 7), genetic lines of animals, the selection of which was carried out for traits not related to behavior. In this case, testing is carried out in the existing lines to identify behavioral differences and further study of the selected lines.
Breeding new strains or identifying differences in behavior is not the main goal of most work in behavioral genetics. This is just a preliminary stage. If it leads to success, this only tells us that the behavioral trait we are interested in is inherited, but we cannot yet answer the question “how?” To answer this question, experimental crossings of animals with contrasting forms of behavior are carried out (for example, “smart” with “stupid” or aggressive with non-aggressive, etc.). If a trait depends on a small number of genes (from one to three), then as a result of such crosses dominant, intermediate, recessive types of inheritance or sex-linked inheritance can be identified. If a trait is determined by a large number of genes, then it is necessary to turn to the methods of quantitative genetics.
In addition to the mechanisms of inheritance, various environmental effects can be studied in animals, including maternal influences, the effects of deprivation or, conversely, an enriched environment on the formation of behavior in ontogenesis, etc. For example, when studying maternal effects, we can randomly select a mother carrying or feeding offspring, or transplant the nucleus of a fertilized egg from one mother into the cytoplasm of another, which, of course, is absolutely impossible in humans. Animals serve as a convenient model for such manipulations.
When studying mutations affecting the brain and behavior, a comprehensive study of mutant forms is carried out, including morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular genetic studies. The current level of development of biotechnology allows the use of new methods that are qualitatively different from traditional ones and include such techniques as the creation of recombinant inbred lines, Chimeras are mosaic organisms that combine cells, tissues and organs of various organisms. The formation of X. is based on the union of cells originating from different zygotes.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">chimeric and mosaic animals, gene knockout, etc. (see note 8) (Reader. 1.8. Zorina; Reader. 1.9. Korochkin).

1.7. The main stages of the formation and development of psychogenetics

The entire history of the formation and development of psychogenetics can be divided into five stages. The periodization of the first three stages was proposed in 1973 by W. Thompson and G. Wilde ().
First stage(1865 - early 1900s) is associated with the scientific activities of F. Galton and his students. In 1865, the first scientific publication on psychogenetics, “Hereditary Talent and Character,” was published. In it, F. Galton first expressed the idea of ​​​​the heritability of mental qualities and the possibility of improving human nature, for which he proposed to promote the birth of offspring from gifted people. This was followed by his famous book “Hereditary Genius” (1869), as well as the articles “Men of Science, Their Education and Character” (1874) and “The History of Twins as a Criterion for the Relative Strength of Nature and Nurture” (1876) (see note 9 ) (Reader 1.10). F. Galton and his student K. Pearson developed the main variational-statistical approaches, which are still used in psychogenetic research.
Second phase- until the end of the 30s. The twentieth century is characterized by the intensive development of the methodology of psychogenetics. The twin method, the idea of ​​which was first proposed by F. Galton, finally took shape and became firmly established in practice. Reliable methods have been developed for determining Zygosity of twins - the twin partners belong to one of two types - monozygotic or dizygotic. Z.b. must be determined when using the twin method.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> zygosity of twins(). In the 20s The method of adopted children has firmly entered the methodological arsenal of psychogenetics, which is now, along with twins, one of the main ones (;).
Thanks to the joint efforts of geneticists and mathematicians, methods of quantitative genetics were improved. This significantly contributed to the development of psychogenetics, since most psychological signs belong to the category of quantitative, i.e. require measurement and application of variational-statistical methods. Such signs could not be studied without the creation of appropriate measuring instruments, therefore the development of psychogenetics went in parallel with the development of psychodiagnostics. Standardized intelligence and personality tests have become increasingly common. Fundamental concepts such as “Validity - the adequacy and effectiveness of a test, the most important criterion of its good quality, characterizing the accuracy of measurement of the property under study, as well as the extent to which the test reflects the property for which it is intended to diagnose.”);" onmouseout= "nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">validity", "reliability", "representativeness", "scaling". To assess the degree of similarity between relatives, methods of correlation and regression analysis were developed (K. Pearson, R. Fisher, S. Wright). S. Wright developed the “path coefficients” method, which is still widely used in psychogenetics to analyze causes and consequences in a system of correlated traits. The foundations of variance and factor analysis were laid, without which modern psychodiagnostics and psychogenetics are unthinkable. It has become possible to quantify the relative contribution of heredity and environment to the variability of psychological traits. Methods of population genetics were developed, without which psychogenetics also could not do, since it studied the causes of interindividual variability in human populations.
At the third stage(until the end of the 60s) psychogenetics developed extensively. This was a period of accumulation of factual material. Genetic studies included a wide variety of characteristics, but the dominant direction remained the study of the role of heredity and environment in the variability of intelligence and other cognitive characteristics. A significant place was occupied by the study of hereditary and environmental causes of mental illness (mainly schizophrenia) and mental retardation. The genetics of animal behavior continued to develop. In 1960, the first generalizing monograph on the genetics of behavior was published (J. Fuller and W. Thompson). In the same year, the Behavior Genetics Association was founded, and the journal Behavior Genetics began publication. This meant that behavioral genetics finally took shape as an independent field of science.
Fourth stage(until the end of the 80s) is again characterized by a shift in emphasis to the development of the methodology of psychogenetics. In the early days, the most common experimental approach was to use correlation or concordance coefficients to estimate similarities between relatives and then calculate heritability ( h2) according to some simple formulas. The resulting statistical characteristics made it possible to roughly estimate the relative contribution of hereditary and environmental factors to the formation of interindividual variability of the trait being studied. As experimental and mathematical approaches developed, some shortcomings and limitations of the basic methods used in psychogenetics were discovered. First of all, this concerned the most common method of twins throughout the world. There was a need to improve the basic experimental schemes and methods of statistical processing, since the obtained results were called into question. It became clear that in order to overcome the crisis that has arisen, it is necessary to include in research a significant number of relatives of varying degrees of kinship, more carefully analyze the characteristics of the environment and conduct age-related, including Longitudinal research (from the English longitude - longitude) - a long and systematic study the same subjects, which makes it possible to determine the range of age and individual variability in the phases of the human life cycle. Initially L.i. (as the method "onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">longitudinal research. All this required the processing of significant amounts of experimental data. Without improving the mathematical apparatus of psychogenetics and the development of machine data processing, this would have been impossible. The current situation was resolved thanks to the computerization of science. The rapid improvement of computer technology pushed researchers to develop fundamentally new approaches. During this period, new genetic and mathematical methods began to intensively develop (structural modeling, path method). Psychogenetics received a powerful tool for its research, which made it possible to quickly process large amounts of data and test the most complex hypotheses.One of the most popular computer programs is LISREL (LINeal Structural RELation).
During the same period, there is some shift in the dominant directions. The unabated interest in the study of the heritability of intelligence for many years is giving way to other characteristics of human individuality (cognitive styles, temperament, personality, psychophysiological characteristics, various developmental disorders). Various aspects of environmental influences are being studied more and more thoroughly, and special methods are being created for studying the family environment. Longitudinal research projects on twins and adopted children are beginning to be established around the world to trace developmental trajectories and genetic continuity.
Fifth stage- modern - covers the 90s. XX century and the beginning of the present, i.e. coincides with intensive work on the Human Genome Project. It is this circumstance that explains the shift in emphasis in Psychogenetics - a field of knowledge located at the intersection of genetics and psychology and studying the interaction of genetic (hereditary) and environmental factors in the formation of interindividual and intergroup variability in mental, psychophysiological and some behavioral properties of a person (in Western literature the term is more often used behavioral genetics - behavioral genetics, including animal behavior).");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">psychogenetics. The predominant direction now can be considered genomic (so to speak). The world-famous psychogeneticist Robert Plomin, in one of his last generalizing articles, called modern behavioral genetics “behavioral genomics” (). By using this expression, R. Plomin emphasized the importance of the top-down principle of analyzing how genes associated with behavior work. The top-down path of analysis means that in behavioral genetics, the movement “from behavior to genes” is more promising, including interactions and correlations between genotype and environment, as well as the possibility of correcting genetic disorders using environmental influences, i.e. "environmental engineering", in the words of R. Plomin.
Now it can be considered proven that most psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of a person, to one degree or another, have a hereditary component that participates in the formation of all the diversity in human behavior that we constantly encounter. There is no doubt that the influences of heredity on behavior are not limited to one or two genes, but include many genes, as well as non-genetic influences that are no less important than the genes. Therefore, the search for a genetic marker is a section of DNA with a known localization. G.m. an allele with a known localization that determines a trait can serve; a distinctive morphological feature of a chromosome, for example, a constriction (morphological marker); polymorphic DNA fragments (molecular markers). G.m. serve as reference points for gene mapping.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);"> genetic markers, associated with behavior, can only be carried out in relation to the main genes that make the main contribution to the trait being studied. It is now clear that there are relatively few such genes. Even if in some families with hereditary psychopathology it is possible to detect the main genes, this does not mean that the genetic localization of the disease is final. Back in 1990, in his article in the journal Science, R. Plomin wrote: “Although any of many genes can disrupt the development of behavior, all the diversity of behavior is controlled by a system of many genes, each of which has a small effect” (). Both normal and deviant behavior are so diverse that it is difficult to imagine that they were formed through the action of a small number of genes. At the present stage, in addition to searching for the main genes and DNA analysis in families with deviant behavior and various diseases, it is equally important to search for methods of environmental, non-genetic influence for the purpose of preventing and correcting possible behavioral disorders. This is one of the main tasks of modern psychogenetics.
Finding genes involved in behavior entails many ethical issues. There is a danger that the results of psychogenetic research will be used to justify social inequality, limit opportunities for education or work, put pressure on married couples expecting a child with a possible risk of hereditary burden, etc. All this increases the social responsibility of scientists working in modern psychogenetics, and requires them to maintain principled positions and constant participation in educational activities.

1.8. Psychogenetics in Russia

After the rediscovery of G. Mendel's laws in 1900, interest in the problem of heredity increased sharply in all countries of the world. Russia did not stand aside either. The first response was a series of articles by the Russian botanist I.P. Borodin, published in 1903. In these articles, he outlined the discovery of G. Mendel and the work of the first Mendelians. At this time, in the West there was a heated debate between supporters of the teachings of G. Mendel and orthodox Darwinists, to whom representatives of the English biometric school belonged. The center of the fight against Mendelism was the new journal Biometrics, founded in 1901 with the ideological support of F. Galton. The basis of the discrepancies was different ideas about variability. The followers of G. Mendel argued that it is discrete in nature. Biometrics is a section of variation statistics, using the methods of which they process experimental data and observations, as well as plan quantitative experiments in biological research. Biology developed in the 19th century, mainly thanks to the works of F. Galton and K. Pearson. In the 20-30s. XX century A major contribution to B. was made by R. Fischer.");" onmouseout="nd();" href="javascript:void(0);">biometrists believed that it is based on continuous variability, and the patterns discovered by G. Mendel are an exception to the general rule. Mendelism found its way into Russia with difficulty. N.I. Vavilov, one of the most famous Russian geneticists of the first half of the twentieth century, recalled that at lectures in 1909-1911. professors, expounding the theory of heredity, tried to limit the application of G. Mendel's laws. Probably, the development of domestic genetics was negatively affected by K.A.’s disapproving attitude towards Mendelism. Timiryazev, who at that time was an idol in biological science. Subsequently, when attacks on genetics began in the USSR, the speech of K.A. Timiryazev against Mendelism played a fatal role and was used to justify the persecution of famous geneticists: S.S. Chetverikova, N.K. Koltsova, N.I. Vavilova and others. Nevertheless, in Russia in the 10s. The foundations for the systematic study of problems of heredity are beginning to be laid.
In 1913, a young private associate professor at St. Petersburg University, Yu.A. Filipchenko began teaching Russia’s first university course on genetics, and in 1914 the first original Russian summary of Mendelism by E.A. Bogdanov. According to A.E. Gaisinovich, genetics as an independent scientific discipline began to develop in our country in 1917. The first scientific institution to include the experimental study of heredity in its plans was created in 1916 by the greatest Russian biologist N.K. Koltsov Institute of Experimental Biology. Since 1922, a genetic laboratory began working at the institute under the leadership of S.S. Chetverikova.
In November 1921, the Russian Eugenics Society was created at the Institute, of which N.K. was elected chairman. Koltsov. The task of society was to study the laws of heredity, establish hereditary differences between individual groups of the population (professional and social types), study exogenous and endogenous influences on the development of a trait, and study the fertility of certain types of people. The Society's plans included family eugenic surveys according to standard schemes and the collection of mass statistical data. Since 1922, the “Russian Eugenics Journal” began to be published, which published the results of genealogical research, statistical data and geography of various diseases, and psychogenetic research. The publication existed until 1930. During this period, seven issues were published.
Prominent psychologists of that time also took part in the work of the Russian Eugenics Society. In the year of the 100th anniversary of F. Galton G.I. Chelpanov, the founder of the oldest psychological institute in Russia, spoke twice at a meeting of the society: the first time in February with a report “The importance of F. Galton for modern scientific psychology”, the second time in March on the problem “Culture of talents (the role of heredity and upbringing)” . In 1923 A.P. Nechaev made a report “On the issue of experimental psychological research of individuals who are especially gifted intellectually”; a little later, at a meeting of the society, a report by G.I. Rossolimo "A look at the current state of the question of the study of intellectual abilities."
During the same period, at Petrograd University Yu.A. Filipchenko created the Department of Experimental Zoology and Genetics (in 1919) and the associated Laboratory of Genetics of the Peterhof Natural Science Station (in 1920). It was here that the first research on human genetics and eugenics began in Petrograd. In 1921, the Bureau of Eugenics was created at the Academy of Sciences, later renamed the Bureau of Genetics. Since 1922 Yu.A. Filipchenko began publishing “News of the Bureau of Eugenics”, which in 1926 was renamed “News of the Bureau of Genetics and Eugenics”, and from 1928 - “News of the Bureau of Genetics”. From 1922 to 1925, three issues of the News Bureau on Eugenics were published, containing mainly articles of a psychogenetic nature. The first issue was dedicated to the 100th anniversary of F. Galton (Chrestomat. 1.11).
Unfortunately, the scientific direction in eugenics throughout the world was gradually replaced by a social movement of an extremist nature, and eugenic works became less and less popular. At the end of the 20s. The Bureau of Eugenics was transformed into the Bureau of Genetics, Y.A. himself. Filipchenko stopped research on human genetics. At the Institute of Experimental Biology, eugenic research was also interrupted. We can say that by 1930, eugenics in the USSR ceased to exist, giving way to human genetics.
The psychogenetic direction received its further development within the walls of another institute. It became the Medical and Biological Institute in Moscow. In 1928, the Office-Laboratory of Heredity and Human Constitution was created here under the leadership of S.G. Levit, a doctor by profession. In 1935, the Medical-Biological Institute was renamed the Medical-Genetic Institute named after. A.M. Gorky. S.G. Levit became its director, but two years later the institute was disbanded, and S.G. The Levite was repressed (see note 10). During the existence of the institute, four volumes of scientific works were published, in which the results of research on psychogenetics, anthropogenetics and medical genetics were published. The psychological department of the institute was headed in those years by the famous psychologist A.R. Luria (Chrestomathy 1.12. Ravich-Scherbo).
One of the main merits of S.G. Levit and the institute as a whole was the introduction of the twin method into human genetics in the USSR. Although individual twin studies have been conducted in Russia since the beginning of the century, they have not been systematic. At the Medical Biological Institute, twin studies were carried out on a large scale. Doctors, psychologists and teachers examined, advised, and provided medical assistance to more than 1,300 pairs of twins. The institute created a special kindergarten for twins, where they were under the supervision of psychologists and doctors. One of the most interesting areas of work with twins was the use of the so-called control twin method to study the effectiveness of pedagogical, medical and psychological interventions (see note 11). We can say that in a very short period of existence of the institute, a direction unique in its capabilities was created and impressive results were obtained. Unfortunately, the official ideology created ever greater obstacles to the development of genetics in the USSR, and the potential possibilities of human genetics laid down at the Medical-Biological Institute in the 30s were never realized. These lines of genetics have been condemned as allegedly based on racist dogmas. After the closure of the Medical Genetics Institute, research on human genetics completely ceased.
The revival of psychogenetics in the Soviet Union occurred only 35 years later, when in 1972 a laboratory of psychogenetics was created at the Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences (now the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education) under the direction of I.V. Ravich-Scherbo (see note 12). The laboratory staff consisted mainly of students of famous domestic psychologists B.M. Teplova and V.D. Nebylitsyn, who over the course of a number of years developed the concept of the properties of the human nervous system (SNS). The main task of the newly created laboratory at first was to study the role of heredity and environment in the formation of individual characteristics of the SNS. To solve this problem, studies were conducted using the twin method. The laboratory staff resumed work on creating a card index of the Moscow twins, similar to the one that was carried out in the 30s. at the Medical and Biological Institute. Gradually the range of research expanded. At first, these were mainly studies of psychophysiological characteristics (EEG, visual and auditory evoked potentials, brain potentials associated with movement), then cognitive styles, studies of intelligence and temperament were added. In 1986, the laboratory began the first longitudinal tracking of twins in Russia, which included the study of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics. Over the past period, the twins who took part in the longitudinal study were tested 3-4 times, which made it possible to obtain interesting results regarding genetic and environmental factors that ensure continuity of development.
During the existence of the laboratory, a team of employees published monographs, textbooks, and published numerous articles in leading domestic and foreign journals (; ; ; ;). In 1999, for a series of works on psychogenetics, the laboratory team was awarded the Government of the Russian Federation Prize in the field of education.

conclusions

• 1.1. Psychogenetics as a field of science. Subject of psychogenetics
  1. In psychology, psychogenetics is part of differential psychology and studies the role of heredity and environment in the formation of interindividual variability in a person’s psychological and psychophysiological characteristics.
  2. In genetics, psychogenetics (the genetics of human behavior) is part of a broader field - the genetics of behavior, which combines, in addition to psychogenetics, the genetics of animal behavior and neurogenetics.
  3. Behavioral genetics combines those branches of genetics that study the hereditary basis of any manifestations of animal and human life, in which the brain and nervous system take part. The genetics of behavior includes all levels of study, ranging from molecular and neural, and ending with the psychological itself.
• 1.2. History of psychogenetics
  1. The basis for the emergence of psychogenetics as a science was the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.
  2. The author of the first scientific study on psychogenetics ("Hereditary Genius" - Hereditary Genius, 1869) and the founder of psychogenetics is Francis Galton.
  3. Charles Darwin and F. Galton shared the theory of “fused” heredity, according to which the substance of heredity is mixed in descendants like two mutually soluble liquids.
• 1.3. Eugenics movement
  1. Eugenics is a field of science and social movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The goal of eugenics was to improve the human race. The term "eugenics" was proposed by F. Galton in 1883.
  2. There were positive and negative directions in eugenics. The main objectives of positive eugenics were to create conditions for encouraging marriages of people with desirable qualities, as well as the study of human heredity and the promotion of medical knowledge. Negative eugenics was aimed at stopping marriages and offspring of people with undesirable qualities. Negative eugenics efforts included immigration restrictions and forced sterilization.
  3. By the end of the 20s of the twentieth century, eugenics as a science ceased to exist due to the fact that in a number of countries (USA, Germany) eugenic activities began to be openly extremist in nature. In fascist Germany, eugenic ideas justified the destruction of entire nations and nationalities.
• 1.4. Genetics and society
  1. Achievements of human genetics and psychogenetics, among other things, influence public consciousness.
  2. Intergroup differences (between races, genders, ethnic groups) are often exaggerated and mistakenly attributed entirely to heredity, which entails social discrimination against certain groups of the population.
  3. The rapid development of human genetics at the end of the twentieth century led to a revival of the eugenics movement.
• 1.5. Psychogenetics in the Human Genome Project
  1. At the end of the 1980s, the international project “Human Genome” was launched, designed to decipher the nucleotide sequences of human DNA. Behavioral genetics was one of the important areas of research in this project. In 2000, through the efforts of scientists around the world, it was possible to “read” the human genome.
  2. Currently, molecular research in psychogenetics is leading. Thanks to this, psychogenetics, which previously relied only on variation-statistical methods, received a powerful methodological apparatus for studying the underlying mechanisms of inheritance of human behavioral and psychological characteristics.
• 1.6. Psychogenetics and genetics of animal behavior
  1. The use of animal modeling is one of the important methods for studying the inheritance of human behavioral characteristics. Model experiments are based on the commonality of many biochemical and physiological characteristics of mammals, including humans.
  2. In the genetics of animal behavior, selection methods, experimental crossings of animals with contrasting forms of behavior, manipulation of the environment, the study of mutant forms, etc. are used.
• 1.7.Main stages of the formation and development of psychogenetics
  1. The history of the formation and development of psychogenetics can be divided into five stages.
  2. At the first stage (1865-1900s), F. Galton and his student K. Pearson developed the main variation-statistical approaches to the study of the heredity of quantitative human traits (including psychological ones).
  3. At the second stage (until the end of the 30s of the twentieth century), through the joint efforts of geneticists, psychologists, mathematicians, the main methods of psychogenetics were finally formed - twins, adopted children, methods of correlation and regression analysis, path analysis, etc. With the development of psychodiagnostics in psychogenetics, the accumulation of actual material.
  4. The third stage (until the end of the 60s) is characterized by extensive development. Factual material is being accumulated. Much attention is paid to studying the role of heredity and environment in individual variability in intelligence and mental illness.
  5. At the fourth stage (until the end of the 80s) in psychogenetics, much attention was again paid to improving the methodology of science and finding new ways of research. Improvements in information technology have stimulated the use of computer modeling methods. The dominant areas are the study of the role of heredity and environment in development, including various types of developmental disorders, longitudinal studies are becoming increasingly popular, and various aspects of environmental influences are analyzed in more detail.
  6. The fifth stage (from the 90s of the twentieth century to the present) coincides with the intensive development of the Human Genome Project. The predominant direction of research is genomic, which includes the search for specific genes associated with the regulation of behavioral characteristics ("behavioral genomics"). Much attention is also paid to the possibility of correcting genetic disorders using environmental influences (“environmental engineering”). The current stage of development of psychogenetics requires the parallel solution of many legal, ethical and social issues.
• 1.8. Psychogenetics in Russia
  1. Genetics as an independent scientific discipline began to develop in Russia in the 10s of the twentieth century.
  2. The first psychogenetic research in Russia was associated with the development of eugenic ideas. At the end of the 20s, the eugenic movement lost its popularity. The Medical Genetics Institute in Moscow is becoming the main center for psychogenetic research, where large-scale twin studies have begun.
  3. Due to political repressions in the USSR at the end of the 30s, domestic research on psychogenetics was interrupted until 1972. In 1972, within the walls of the oldest Psychological Institute in Russia, the Russian Academy of Education, the first independent laboratory of psychogenetics was opened under the leadership of I.V. Ravich-Scherbo.

Glossary of terms

1. Psychogenetics
2. Behavior
3. Behavioral genetics
4. Wednesday
5. Eugenics
6. Individual differences
7. Heredity
8. Differential psychology
9. Variability
10. Intelligence
11. Giftedness
12. Racial differences
13. Sex differences
14. International Human Genome Project
15. Selection

Self-test questions

1. What does psychogenetics study?
2. How is the term “behavior” interpreted in behavioral genetics?
3. Why does psychogenetics belong to the category of disciplines that make up the natural scientific foundations of psychology?
4. Whose work laid the foundation for psychogenetics?
5. What are the two main goals of genetics?
6. Why is psychogenetics primarily concerned with the study of variability rather than heredity?
7. What is differential psychology and what place does psychogenetics occupy in it?
8. Systematic work on psychogenetics began with the study of what psychological characteristics and why?
9. What are the main tasks of psychogenetics?
10. What factors underlie individual differences?
11. Outline a brief history of the development of psychogenetics.
12. Why have heated debates concerning social policy been associated with psychogenetics?
13. Can psychogenetic data be interpreted from extreme positions bordering on racism? Give an example.
14. What is eugenics and why has this area not been further developed?
15. Why in psychogenetics in the 70s. Is there a need to develop new methodological approaches?
16. What is the reason for the intensive development of psychogenetics since the 80s?
17. What are the main trends in the development of modern psychogenetics?
18. What do you know about foreign and domestic psychogenetic research?

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18. Bruks B. The relative influence of nature and nurture upon mental development; a comparative study of foster parents-foster child resemblance and true parent-true child recemblance. In: Twenty-sevenths Yearbook of the National Society for the study of education, Part I, Public School publishing Co., Bloomington, 1928.
19. Donohue J. and Levitt S.D. The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime. Quarterly Journal of Economics. 2001.
20. Hernstein R. D. and Murray C. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. 1994.
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25. Rushton J. P. Race, Evolution and Behavior. 1995.
26. Siemens H. Diagnosis of Identity in Twins // Heredity. 1927. No. 18. P. 201-209.
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28. Weiss V. Psychogenetic. Humangenetics in Psychologie und Psychiatrie. VEB. 1982.

Topics of term papers and essays

1. F. Galton is the founder of psychogenetics.
2. History of psychogenetics in Russia.
3. The heritability of intelligence and racial politics.
4. History of the foreign eugenics movement.
5. Eugenics in Russia.
6. International Human Genome Project.
7. Genetics and society.

Psychogenetics test questions

Subject and tasks of psychogenetics.

History of the development of psychogenetics.

Variability. Definition of the concept.

Basic concepts of the theory of heredity.

Inheritance. Definition of the concept.

Genotype and phenotype.

Genotype, gene, allele.

Dominance. Definition of the concept.

Recessiveness. Definition of the concept.

Chromosomes. Karyotype.

Chromosomal aberrations.

The role of G. Mendel in the development of genetics.

Mendel's first law.

Mendel's second law.

Mendel's third law.

Non-Mendelian genetics.

DNA as the basis of heredity.

DNA structure.

Transcription. Definition of the concept.

Broadcast. Definition of the concept.

Types and structure of genes.

DNA mutations.

Natural selection.

Methods of psychogenetic research.

Geneological method.

Method of adopted children.

Twin method.

A variation of the twin method.

Psychogenetic studies of intelligence.

Verbal and non-verbal intelligence.

Temperament. Definition of the concept.

Psychogenetic studies of movement.

Motor tests.

Genetic psychophysiology. Subject of discipline and tasks.

Levels of analysis of brain genetics.

Electroencephalography as a research method.

Types of electroencephalography and their hereditary causes.

Functional asymmetry. Definition of the concept.

The role of heredity and environment in the formation of functional asymmetry.

Development of functional asymmetry in ontogenesis.

Normative and individual in the development of psychological characteristics.

Stability of psychological traits in ontogenesis.

Age aspects of psychogenetics.

Age aspects of genetic psychophysiology.

Mental dysontogenesis.

1. Features of functional asymmetries in twins.

   Genotype – environmental relationships in individual development.

   Concepts, methods and models of age-related psychogenetics.

   Age dynamics of genetic and environmental determinants.

Psychogenetics

Psychogenetics is an interdisciplinary field of knowledge, borderline "between psychology (more precisely, differential psychology) and genetics; the subject of its research is the relative role and effect of hereditary and environmental factors in the formation of differences in psychological and psychophysiological characteristics. In recent years, the scope of psychogenetic research has also included individual development: both mechanisms of transition from stage to stage, and individual development trajectories.

In Western literature, the term “behavioral genetics” is usually used to refer to this scientific discipline. However, in Russian terminology it seems inadequate (at least in relation to humans). And that's why.

In Russian psychology, the understanding of the term “behavior” has changed, and quite dramatically. At L.S. Vygotsky’s “development of behavior” is actually a synonym for “mental development”, and, therefore, the laws established for specific mental functions are valid for it. However, in subsequent years, “behavior” began to be understood more narrowly, rather as a designation of certain external forms, external manifestations of human activity that have personal and social motivation.

S.L. Rubinstein wrote back in 1946 that it is precisely when Motivation moves from the sphere of things, objects, to the sphere of personal-social relations and acquires leading importance in human actions, “human activity acquires a new specific aspect. It becomes behavior in the special sense that this word has when they talk about human behavior in Russian. It is fundamentally different from “behavior” as a term in behavioral psychology, which is retained in this meaning in animal psychology. Human behavior contains as a defining moment the attitude towards moral norms.”

B.G. Ananiev considered the question of the relationship between “behavior” and “activity” in a different aspect, namely from the point of view of which of these two concepts is more general, generic. He believed that his decision could vary depending on the perspective from which he studied the person.

The task of psychogenetics- elucidation of not only hereditary, but also environmental reasons for the formation of differences between people according to psychological characteristics. The results of modern psychogenetic research provide information about the mechanisms of action of the environment to the same, if not greater, extent as about the mechanisms of action of the Genotype. In general terms, it can be argued that the main role in the formation of interindividual variability in psychological characteristics belongs to the individual (unique) environment. Its role is especially high for personality and psychopathological traits. Increasing emphasis in psychogenetic research is being placed on the relationship between family socioeconomic level or length of schooling with the results of children's intelligence tests. And even such formal characteristics as the parameters of the family configuration (number of children, serial number of birth, interval between births) turn out to be important for the individualization of the child - both in the cognitive and personal spheres.

As a result, the similarity of members of a nuclear family in terms of psychological characteristics stated in the study may have both genetic and environmental origins. The same can be said about the decrease in similarity with a decrease in the degree of relatedness: as a rule, in this case we are dealing with different families, i.e. We are talking about a decrease not only in the number of common genes, but also in different family environments. This means that a decrease in similarity in pairs of people related more distantly is also not evidence of the genetic determination of the trait under study: in such pairs the genetic commonality is lower, but at the same time the environmental differences are higher.

All this leads to the conclusion that family research by itself, without combining it with other methods, has a very low resolution and does not allow one to reliably “separate” the genetic and environmental components of the variance of a psychological trait. Although, when combined with other methods, for example with twins, family data make it possible to solve questions that are impossible to solve without them (for example, to clarify the type of hereditary transmission - additive or dominant), or to control environmental variables (for example, the general family and individual environment, the effect twinhood).

Methods of psychogenetics

METHODS OF PSYCHOGENETICS (from the Greek psyche-soul, genos-origin) - methods that allow us to determine the influence of hereditary factors and the environment on the formation of certain mental characteristics of a person.

The most informative is twin method. It is based on the fact that monozygotic (identical) twins have an identical genotype, dizygotic (fraternal) twins have a non-identical genotype; Moreover, members of twin pairs of any type must have a similar upbringing environment. Then the greater intrapair similarity of monozygotic twins compared to dizygotic twins may indicate the presence of hereditary influences on the variability of the trait being studied. A significant limitation of this method is that the similarity of the actual psychological characteristics of monozygotic twins may also have a non-genetic origin.

Genealogical method- study of similarities between relatives in different generations. This requires accurate knowledge of a number of characteristics of direct relatives on the maternal and paternal lines and coverage of the widest possible range of blood relatives; It is also possible to use data from a sufficient number of different families to reveal similarities in pedigrees. This method is mainly used in medical genetics and anthropology. However, the similarity of generations in terms of psychological characteristics can be explained not only by their genetic transmission, but also by social continuity.

Population method allows you to study the distribution of individual genes or chromosomal abnormalities in human populations. To analyze the genetic structure of a population, it is necessary to examine a large group of individuals, which must be representative, that is, representative, allowing one to judge the population as a whole. This method is also more informative when studying various forms of hereditary pathology. As for the analysis of the heritability of normal psychological traits, this method, taken in isolation from other methods of psychogenetics, does not provide reliable information, because differences between populations in the distribution of a particular psychological trait can be caused by social reasons, customs, etc.

Adopted children method- comparison of similarities on any psychological basis between the child and his biological parents, on the one hand, the child and the adoptive parents who raised him, on the other.

The methods require mandatory statistical processing specific to each method. The most informative methods of mathematical analysis require the simultaneous use of at least the first two methods.

The concepts of genotype and phenotype - very important in biology. The totality of all the genes of an organism constitutes its genotype. The totality of all the characteristics of an organism (morphological, anatomical, functional, etc.) constitutes a phenotype. Throughout the life of an organism, its phenotype may change, but the genotype remains unchanged. This is explained by the fact that the phenotype is formed under the influence of the genotype and environmental conditions.

The word genotype has two meanings. In a broad sense, it is the totality of all the genes of a given organism. But in relation to experiments of the type that Mendel performed, the word genotype refers to the combination of alleles that control a given trait (for example, organisms can have the genotype AA, Aa or aa).

The term "genotype" was introduced into science by Johannson in 1909.

(from the Greek phaino - I reveal, reveal and typos - imprint, form, sample) - result the interaction of all the genes of an organism with each other and various environmental factors, a set of characteristics inherent in a given organism.

The term "phenotype" like genotype, it is used in two senses. In a broad sense, it is the totality of all the characteristics of an organism. But in relation to monohybrid crossing, the word phenotype usually denotes the trait that is studied in this crossing, for example, a tall plant has one phenotype, and a dwarf plant has another.

Subject and tasks of psychogenetics. The place of psychogenetics in the study of human personality. The problem of heredity. Development of psychogenetics in world and domestic science (F. Galton, K. Stern, K. D. Ushinsky, A. F. Lazursky, N. P. Dubinin, V. P. Efronmson). Methods of psychogenetics(population, genealogical, adopted children method, twin method).

1. concept, subject, tasks and place of PG in the system of other sciences.
2. PG history:

A) GHG global and domestic.

3. Clarification of the structure of individual mental functions.

4. Identification of different types of environmental influences.

2. World psychogenetics.

Galton - test, questionnaire, survey; contributions to fingerprinting; opened an anticyclone. Two hypotheses:

All men are smarter than women (but it turned out that in some characteristics women are smarter).

Outstanding people have gifted children, i.e. pass on their abilities (but the lower classes also have their own talents).

He was the first to explore the role of heredity and environment in human intellectual characteristics.

1865 - article, book “Hereditary talent and character.” He argued that talent, human mental properties and physical characteristics are hereditary. He put forward the idea that it is possible to change the physical and spiritual appearance of a person using biological methods. The foundations of the new science of eugenics (designed to improve the quality of the population) were laid.

1876 ​​- “Hereditary genius: a study of its laws and consequences.” He presented data on the inheritance of talent in the families of prominent people (military affairs, medicine, artists). Therefore, the likelihood of giftedness manifesting itself in the families of outstanding people is higher than in society as a whole (415 families - 1000 gifted people). He identified three degrees of talent: highest, middle and lowest.

1876 ​​- "The History of Twins as a Criterion of Relative Strength, Nature and Nurture" - the twin and genealogical methods were introduced to clarify issues of inheritance of talent. Even then I realized that there are monozygotic and dizygotic. There is an unchangeable part of heredity, and there is a changeable part.

“Essay on Eugenics” - defines this science (deals with all influences that improve the quality of the race). It is necessary to educate the people.

Stage of qualitative characteristics.

Stage 2. - 1900 -1930 (stage of quantitative characteristics).

The work of Fisher, Wright and Pearson together with Galton gave rise to this stage - the genetics of quantitative traits.

Statistical methods are emerging. Psychodiagnostics is actively developing. Reliable methods for diagnosing zygosity of twins are emerging. A method is emerging for comparing separately grown monozygotic twins.

They are beginning to conduct research on the genetics of animal behavior.

Stage 3 - 1930 - 1960.

Psychogenetics of intelligence.

Measurement of psychogenetic research of mental defects, psychiatric diseases.

Faller, Thompson, "The Genetics of Behavior."

Stage 4 - 1960 - 90s.

Shifting the emphasis from psychogenetic research to research on temperament, personality traits, motor skills and psychophysiological functions.

Limitations of some methods were discovered (especially in the twin method).

Domestic psychogenetics.

Stage 1 - until 1917

Wolf - he was interested in the collection of freaks. He believed that freaks were beautiful creatures and were created by nature.

Freaks are extreme deviations from the norm, and by understanding them, one can establish the general principles of all development.

Two main questions.

1. What can be passed on to offspring at birth?
2. Can the internal and external improvements acquired through exercise be transferred?

Temperament, almost all diseases, predisposition to illness, human virtues, six-fingeredness can be transmitted.

Wolf made a lot of mistakes. I didn’t understand where hereditary information was stored.

“+” he foresaw that a lot of things are inherited.

What is acquired is also inherited.

Stage 2 - 1917 - 1930

Filipchenko Yu.A.

He was the first to receive a doctorate in genetics.

Tries to answer questions (from Wolf).

1916 - “Heredity”, what characteristics are inherited, but the answer is not given. Goes to eugenics (the science of improving the human race), the founder of which is considered to be F. Galton. “Eugenics is a good science and we should encourage the birth of children not only of gifted children, but of all.” Each parent must decide for themselves whether to give birth to a child with defects. They educated families if they had any abnormalities or abnormalities in their past.

Stage 3 - 1930 - 60s.

There was a defeat of genetics and the science of pedology was banned. Father for several decades. Genetics ceased to exist.

Kanaev "Twins"

Yudovich, Luria “Speech and the development of mental processes in a child.”

Stage 4 - since 1970

The beginning of systematic research in psychogenetics.

The first laboratory is being created - Ravich - Shcherbo (headed until 1993). Based on the laboratory of Teplov and Nebylitsyn.

Population studies were carried out in isolation wards in Dagestan and in villages in Turkmenistan.

Efroimson “Ethics of ethics and aesthetics.”

History of genetics.

Stage 1 - 1900 - 1930

Stage 2 - 1930 - 1953

Stages 1-2 - stages of classical genetics, neoclassicism.

Stage 3 - 1953 - to the present day - the era of molecular (synthetic) genetics.

G.I. Mendel (1865) - helped his parents in gardening and gardening.

At the age of 10 I was sent to study at a gymnasium (I left and came again due to lack of money). I started giving lessons and earning money.

Didn't finish university (because of money). My sister gave her money (for marriage).

He conducted his experiments in the monastery (at first he crossed rabbits, but he had to give up and began to work on peas - for 8 years, artificially pollinated flowers, counted by hand - as a result he discovered the laws of heredity. No one understood him.

Nothing worked with wheat.

1901 - 1903 - Friesian mutation theory.

1902 - 1907 - Wilson, Bovern - substantiated the chromosomal theory of heredity.

1906 - Betson - introduced the name genetics.

1909 - Johansen - introduced the concept; gene, genotype, phenotype.

1910 - 1925 - the chromosomal theory of heredity was created. Vavilov proposes and creates a gene bank.

The development of domestic genetics has been suspended.

1941 - incompatibility of mother and fetus due to the Rh factor.

1940 - 1953 - solving problems of human genetics.

1953 - discovery of the spatial model of DNA structure (Watson, Krieg, Wilkins).

1954 - proof of the role of infectious diseases in the formation of the human gene pool.

1956 - it was established that there are 46 chromosomes (Tio, Levan)

1959 - the cause of Down syndrome was established, as well as the role of the y chromosome in determining sex.

1970 - all methods for differential chromosome staining appeared.

1972 - a new industry is developed - genetic engineering.

In Western literature, most works use the term “behavior genetics”, and in Russian terminology the term “psychogenetics” is more adequate, because, firstly, the unit of behavior analysis is an act (S.L. Rubinstein, 1956, etc.) , which is not a trait in the genetic sense of the word, and, secondly, the traits studied in psychogenetics (IQ scores, temperament characteristics, etc.) are not “behavior” itself.