Help on Tele2, tariffs, questions

TODAY IS OUR ARMY'S DAY! HAPPY HOLIDAY TO YOU, MEN. AND, OF COURSE, THE LADIES WHO ARE INVOLVED!

Therefore, when discussing this topic, it is not at all necessary to talk only about the ancient Romans

Maybe just about the history of military art. Because being a soldier and winning is an art

MATERIAL FOR ALL SOLDIERS AND THOSE SIMPLY INTERESTED!

Brief historical background

Ancient Rome is a state that conquered the peoples of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Britain. Roman soldiers were famous throughout the world for their iron discipline (but it was not always iron) and brilliant victories. The Roman commanders went from victory to victory (there were also severe defeats), until all the peoples of the Mediterranean found themselves under the weight of the soldier’s boot.

The Roman army at different times had different numbers, number of legions, and different formations. With the improvement of military art, weapons, tactics and strategy changed.

In Rome there was universal conscription. Young men began to serve in the army from the age of 17 and up to 45 in field units, after 45 to 60 they served in fortresses. Persons who participated in 20 campaigns in the infantry and 10 in the cavalry were exempt from service. Service life also changed over time.

At one time, due to the fact that everyone wanted to serve in the light infantry (weapons were cheap and purchased at their own expense), the citizens of Rome were divided into categories. This was done under Servius Tullius. The 1st category included people who owned property valued at no less than 100,000 copper asses, the 2nd - at least 75,000 asses, the 3rd - 50,000 asses, the 4th - 25,000 asses, the 5th -mu – 11,500 asses. All poor people were included in the 6th category - proletarians, whose wealth was only their offspring ( proles). Each property category fielded a certain number of military units - centuries (hundreds): 1st category - 80 centuries of heavy infantry, which were the main fighting force, and 18 centuries of horsemen; only 98 centuries; 2nd – 22; 3rd – 20; 4th – 22; 5th - 30 lightly armed centuries and 6th category - 1 century, a total of 193 centuries. Lightly armed warriors were used as baggage servants. Thanks to the division into ranks, there was no shortage of heavily armed, lightly armed infantry and horsemen. Proletarians and slaves did not serve because they were not trusted.

Over time, the state took upon itself not only the maintenance of the warrior, but also withheld from his salary for food, weapons and equipment.

After a severe defeat at Cannes and in a number of other places, after the Punic Wars, the army was reorganized. Salaries were sharply increased and proletarians were allowed to serve in the army.

Continuous wars required many soldiers, changes in weapons, construction, and training. The army became mercenary. Such an army could be led anywhere and against anyone. This is what happened when Lucius Cornellius Sulla came to power (1st century BC).

Organization of the Roman army

After the victorious wars of the IV-III centuries. BC. All the peoples of Italy came under the rule of Rome. To keep them in obedience, the Romans gave some peoples more rights, others less, sowing mutual distrust and hatred between them. It was the Romans who formulated the law of “divide and conquer.”

And for this, numerous troops were needed. Thus, the Roman army consisted of:

a) legions in which the Romans themselves served, consisting of heavy and light infantry and cavalry assigned to them;

b) Italian allies and allied cavalry (after granting citizenship rights to the Italians who joined the legion);

c) auxiliary troops recruited from the inhabitants of the provinces.

The main tactical unit was the legion. At the time of Servius Tullius, the legion numbered 4,200 men and 900 horsemen, not counting 1,200 lightly armed soldiers who were not part of the legion's combat ranks.

Consul Marcus Claudius changed the structure of the legion and weapons. This happened in the 4th century BC.

The legion was divided into maniples (Latin for a handful), centuries (hundreds) and decurii (tens), which resembled modern companies, platoons, and squads.

Light infantry - velites (literally - fast, mobile) walked ahead of the legion in a loose formation and started a battle. In case of failure, she retreated to the rear and flanks of the legion. There were 1200 people in total.

Hastati (from the Latin “gast” - spear) - spearmen, 120 people in a maniple. They formed the first line of the legion. Principles (first) – 120 people in the manipula. Second line. Triarii (third) – 60 people in a maniple. Third line. The triarii were the most experienced and tested fighters. When the ancients wanted to say that the decisive moment had come, they said: “It has come to the triarii.”

Each maniple had two centuries. In the century of hastati or principles there were 60 people, and in the century of triarii there were 30 people.

The legion was assigned 300 horsemen, making up 10 turmas. The cavalry covered the flanks of the legion.

At the very beginning of the use of the manipular order, the legion went into battle in three lines, and if an obstacle was encountered that the legionnaires were forced to flow around, this resulted in a gap in the battle line, the maniple from the second line hurried to close the gap, and the maniple from the second line took the place of the maniple from the third line . During the battle with the enemy, the legion represented a monolithic phalanx.

Over time, the third line of the legion began to be used as a reserve that decided the fate of the battle. But if the commander incorrectly determined the decisive moment of the battle, the legion would face death. Therefore, over time, the Romans switched to the cohort formation of the legion. Each cohort numbered 500-600 people and, with an attached cavalry detachment, acting separately, was a legion in miniature.

Command structure of the Roman army

In tsarist times, the commander was the king. During the Republic, the consuls commanded, dividing the troops in half, but when it was necessary to unite, they commanded alternately. If there was a serious threat, then a dictator was chosen, to whom the chief of the cavalry was subordinate, as opposed to the consuls. The dictator had unlimited rights. Each commander had assistants who were entrusted with separate parts of the army.

Individual legions were commanded by tribunes. There were six of them per legion. Each pair commanded for two months, replacing each other every day, then giving way to the second pair, etc. The centurions were subordinate to the tribunes. Each century was commanded by a centurion. The commander of the first hundred was the commander of the maniple. Centurions had the right of a soldier for misconduct. They carried with them a vine - a Roman rod; this weapon was rarely left idle. The Roman writer Tacitus talked about one centurion, whom the entire army knew by the nickname: “Pass over the other!” After the reform of Marius, an associate of Sulla, the centurions of the triarii gained great influence. They were invited to a military council.

As in our time, the Roman army had banners, drums, kettledrums, trumpets, and horns. The banners were a spear with a crossbar, on which hung a panel of one-color material. The maniples, and after the reform of Maria the cohorts, had banners. Above the crossbar there was an image of an animal (wolf, elephant, horse, boar...). If a unit accomplished a feat, then it was awarded - the award was attached to the flagpole; this custom has survived to this day.

The badge of the legion under Mary was a silver or bronze eagle. Under the emperors it was made of gold. The loss of the banner was considered the greatest shame. Each legionnaire had to defend the banner to the last drop of blood. In difficult times, the commander threw the banner into the midst of enemies in order to encourage the soldiers to return it back and disperse the enemies.

The first thing the soldiers were taught was to relentlessly follow the badge, the banner. Standard bearers were chosen from strong and experienced soldiers and were held in high esteem and respect.

According to the description of Titus Livy, the banners were a square panel laced to a horizontal crossbar mounted on a pole. The color of the cloth was different. They were all monochromatic - purple, red, white, blue.

Until the Allied infantry merged with the Romans, it was commanded by three prefects chosen from among Roman citizens.

Great importance was attached to the quartermaster service. The head of the quartermaster service was the quaestor, who was in charge of forage and food for the army. He ensured that everything needed was delivered. In addition, each century had its own foragers. A special official, like a captain in a modern army, distributed food to the soldiers. At the headquarters there was a staff of scribes, accountants, cashiers who issued salaries to soldiers, priests-fortunetellers, military police officials, spies, and trumpeter-signal players.

All signals were sent through a pipe. The sound of the trumpet was rehearsed with curved horns. When changing the guard, a futsin trumpet was blown. The cavalry used a special long pipe, curved at the end. The signal to assemble the troops for a general meeting was given by all the trumpeters gathered in front of the commander’s tent.

Training in the Roman Army

The training of the soldiers of the Roman manipular legion primarily consisted of teaching the soldiers to go forward on the orders of the centurion, to fill gaps in the battle line at the moment of collision with the enemy, and to rush to merge into the general mass. Performing these maneuvers required more complex training than that of a warrior fighting in a phalanx.

The training also consisted of the fact that the Roman soldier was sure that he would not be left alone on the battlefield, that his comrades would rush to his aid.

The appearance of legions divided into cohorts, the complication of maneuver, required more complex training. It is no coincidence that after the reform of Marius, one of his associates, Rutilius Rufus, introduced a new training system in the Roman army, which was reminiscent of the system of training gladiators in gladiatorial schools. Only well-trained (trained) soldiers could overcome fear and get close to the enemy, attack a huge mass of the enemy from the rear, feeling only a cohort nearby. Only a disciplined soldier could fight like this. Under Mary, a cohort was introduced, which included three maniples. The legion had ten cohorts, not counting light infantry, and from 300 to 900 horsemen.

Fig. 3 – Cohort battle formation.

Discipline

The Roman army, famous for its discipline, unlike other armies of that time, was entirely at the mercy of the commander.

The slightest violation of discipline was punishable by death, as was failure to comply with orders. So, in 340 BC. the son of the Roman consul Titus Manlius Torquatus, during reconnaissance without orders from the commander-in-chief, entered into battle with the head of the enemy detachment and defeated him. He talked about this in camp with delight. However, the consul sentenced him to death. The sentence was carried out immediately, despite the pleas of the entire army for mercy.

Ten lictors always walked in front of the consul, carrying bundles of rods (fasciae, fascines). In wartime, an ax was inserted into them. A symbol of the consul's power over his men. First, the offender was flogged with rods, then his head was cut off with an ax. If part or all of the army showed cowardice in battle, then decimation was carried out. Decem in Russian means ten. This is what Crassus did after the defeat of several legions by Spartacus. Several hundred soldiers were flogged and then executed.

If a soldier fell asleep at his post, he was put on trial and then beaten to death with stones and sticks. For minor offenses they could be flogged, demoted, transferred to hard work, reduced in salary, deprived of citizenship, or sold into slavery.

But there were also rewards. They could promote them in rank, increase their salary, reward them with land or money, exempt them from camp work, and award them with insignia: silver and gold chains, bracelets. The award ceremony was carried out by the commander himself.

The usual awards were medals (faleres) with the image of a god or commander. The highest insignia were wreaths (crowns). Oak was given to a soldier who saved a comrade - a Roman citizen - in battle. A crown with a battlement - to the one who first climbed the wall or rampart of an enemy fortress. A crown with two golden bows of ships - to the soldier who was the first to step onto the deck of an enemy ship. The siege wreath was given to the commander who lifted the siege of a city or fortress or liberated it. But the highest reward - triumph - was given to the commander for an outstanding victory, in which at least 5,000 enemies had to be killed.

The triumphant rode on a gilded chariot wearing a purple robe embroidered with palm leaves. The chariot was drawn by four snow-white horses. In front of the chariot they carried spoils of war and led prisoners. The triumphant man was followed by relatives and friends, songwriters, and soldiers. Triumphant songs were sung. Every now and then there were shouts of “Io!” and “Triumph!” (“Io!” corresponds to our “Hurray!”). The slave standing behind the triumphant on the chariot reminded him that he was a mere mortal and so that he should not become arrogant.

For example, the soldiers of Julius Caesar, who were in love with him, followed him, making fun of him and laughing at his baldness.

Roman camp

The Roman camp was well thought out and fortified. The Roman army, as they said, carried the fortress with it. As soon as a halt was made, construction of the camp immediately began. If it was necessary to move on, the camp was abandoned unfinished. Even if it was defeated only for a short time, it differed from a one-day one with more powerful fortifications. Sometimes the army remained in camp for the winter. This type of camp was called a winter camp; instead of tents, houses and barracks were built. By the way, cities such as Lancaster, Rochester and others arose on the site of some Roman camps. Cologne (the Roman colony of Agripinna), Vienna (Vindobona) grew out of the Roman camps... Cities ending in “...chester” or “...castrum” arose on the site of the Roman camps. “Castrum” - camp.

The camp site was chosen on the southern dry slope of the hill. Nearby there should have been water and pasture for the transport's livestock, as well as fuel.

The camp was a square, later a rectangle, the length of which was one third longer than the width. First of all, the location of the praetorium was planned. This is a square area, the side of which is 50 meters. The commander's tents, altars, and a platform for addressing the commander's soldiers were placed here; The trial and the gathering of troops took place here. To the right was the tent of the quaestor, to the left - the legates. There were tribune tents on both sides. In front of the tents, a street 25 meters wide ran through the entire camp; the main street was crossed by another, 12 meters wide. At the ends of the streets there were gates and towers. There were ballistas and catapults on them (one and the same throwing weapon, got its name from the projectile thrown, ballista, metal cannonballs, catapult - arrows). Legionnaires' tents stood in regular rows on the sides. From the camp the troops could set out on a campaign without fuss or disorder. Each century occupied ten tents, and each maniple occupied twenty. The tents had a plank frame, a gable plank roof, and were covered with leather or rough linen. Tent area from 2.5 to 7 square meters. m. A decuria lived in it - 6-10 people, two of whom were constantly on guard. The tents of the Praetorian Guard and cavalry were large. The camp was surrounded by a palisade, a wide and deep ditch and a rampart 6 meters high. There was a distance of 50 meters between the ramparts and the legionnaires' tents. This was done so that the enemy could not set fire to the tents. In front of the camp, an obstacle course was set up consisting of several countervailing lines and barriers made of sharpened stakes, wolf pits, trees with sharpened branches and intertwined, forming an almost impassable obstacle.

Leggings have been worn by Roman legionnaires since ancient times. They were abolished under the emperors. But the centurions continued to wear them. The leggings had the color of the metal from which they were made, and were sometimes painted.

In the time of Mary the banners were silver, in the times of the empire they were gold. The panels were multi-colored: white, blue, red, purple.

Rice. 7 – Weapons.

A cavalry sword is one and a half times longer than an infantry sword. The swords were double-edged, the handles were made of bone, wood, and metal.

A pilum is a heavy spear with a metal tip and shaft. Serrated tip. The shaft is wooden. The middle part of the spear is wrapped tightly turn to turn with cord. One or two tassels were made at the end of the cord. The tip of the spear and the shaft were made of soft forged iron, before the iron was made of bronze. The pilum was thrown at the enemy's shields. The spear that dug into the shield pulled it to the bottom, and the warrior was forced to throw the shield, since the spear weighed 4-5 kg ​​and dragged along the ground, as the tip and rod were bent.

Rice. 8 – Scutums (shields).

Shields (scutums) acquired a semi-cylindrical shape after the war with the Gauls in the 4th century. BC e. Scutums were made from light, well-dried, tightly fitted aspen or poplar boards, covered with linen, and on top with cowhide. The edge of the shield was bordered with a strip of metal (bronze or iron) and the strips were placed in a cross across the center of the shield. In the center was a pointed plaque (umbon) - the top of the shield. The legionnaires kept a razor, money and other small things in it (it was removable). On the inside there was a belt loop and a metal bracket, the owner's name and the number of the century or cohort were written. The skin could be dyed: red or black. The hand was inserted into the belt loop and grasped by the bracket, thanks to which the shield hung tightly on the hand.

The helmet in the center is earlier, the one on the left is later. The helmet had three feathers 400 mm long; in ancient times, helmets were bronze, later iron. The helmet was sometimes decorated with snakes on the sides, which at the top formed a place where feathers were inserted. In later times, the only decoration on the helmet was the crest. On the top of the head the Roman helmet had a ring into which a strap was threaded. The helmet was worn on the back or lower back, like a modern helmet.

Rice. 11 – Pipes.

Roman velites were armed with javelins and shields. The shields were round, made of wood or metal. The velites were dressed in tunics; later (after the war with the Gauls) all legionnaires also began to wear trousers. Some of the velites were armed with slings. The slingers had bags for stones hanging on their right side, over their left shoulder. Some velites may have had swords. Shields (wooden) were covered with leather. The color of clothing could be any color except purple and its shades. Velites could wear sandals or walk barefoot. Archers appeared in the Roman army after the defeat of the Romans in the war with Parthia, where the consul Crassus and his son died. The same Crassus who defeated the troops of Spartacus at Brundisium.

The centurions had silver-plated helmets, did not have shields and carried the sword on the right side. They had greaves and, as a distinctive sign on the armor, on the chest they had an image of a grapevine rolled into a ring. During the times of manipular and cohort formation of legions, centurions were on the right flank of centuries, maniples, cohorts. The cloak is red, and all legionnaires wore red cloaks. Only the dictator and senior commanders had the right to wear purple cloaks.

Rice. 17 – Roman horseman.

Animal skins served as saddles. The Romans did not know stirrups. The first stirrups were rope loops. The horses were not shod. Therefore, the horses were very taken care of.

References

1. Military history. Razin, 1-2 t. t., Moscow, 1987

2. On seven hills (Essays on the culture of ancient Rome). M.Yu. German, B.P. Seletsky, Yu.P. Suzdal; Leningrad, 1960.

3. Hannibal. Titus Livy; Moscow, 1947.

4. Spartak. Raffaello Giovagnoli; Moscow, 1985.

5. Flags of the world. K.I. Ivanov; Moscow, 1985.

6. History of ancient Rome, under the general editorship of V.I. Kuzishchino

Twenty-second June 168 BC The Romans defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna. The homeland of Philip and Alexander the Great now became a Roman province.
Several Greeks who were among the Macedonians on the battlefield were sent to Rome after the battle. Among them was the historian Polybius. He was placed under the protection of the Scipios, and then he became a close friend of Scipio Aemilianus, accompanying him on campaigns.
In order for his Greek readers to understand how the Roman army functioned, Polybius took the trouble to describe even the smallest details. This scrupulousness of description is absent in another work, which became an important source of information for us - Caesar counted on the fact that his readers would know and understand a lot. The description below is based almost exclusively on Polybius's story.

Army recruitment and organization
A cohort of a legion consisting of 4,200 people - as described by Polybius.

This unit consisted of three maniples, each of which included two centuries. The maniple was the smallest independent unit of the legion. Each triarii maniple consisted of 60 veterans and 40 velite skirmishers assigned to them. Each maniple of principles and hastati consisted of 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites.
C - centurion, 3 - standard bearer P - assistant centurion.

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and build were selected and presented before the stands. The tribune of the first legion was chosen first, then the second and third; the fourth legion received the remainder. In the next group of four recruits, the tribune soldier of the second legion chose first, and the first legion took the last. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In case of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot soldiers and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The recruitment was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who had to step forward and swear to obey his commanders and carry out their orders to the best of his ability. Then everyone else also took a step forward and vowed to do the same as him (“Idem in me”). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of assembly for each legion so that everyone was distributed to their units.

While recruits were being recruited, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited recruits and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and a paymaster and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, consisting of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred of them. Of the remaining three thousand, those younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in full bloom became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of the battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). There were 600 of them, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii left. The number of people in other units could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes elected ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion elected by the tribunes was the eldest. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them “uragas,” equating them to “those who bring up the rear” of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten maniple detachments, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by Primipilus, the senior centurion.

So, before us appears a legion consisting of 4,200 foot soldiers, divided into 30 maniples - 10 each for the hastati, principles and triarii, respectively. The first two groups had the same structure - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites. The triarii had 60 heavy infantry and 40 velites. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent status, since the maniple was considered the smallest tactical unit. The centurions appointed the two best warriors as standard bearers (signiferi). In the Etruscan-Roman army there were two centuries of buglers and trumpeters, one per century. Polybius' description says nothing about such a connection, but he constantly mentions buglers and trumpeters. It seems that now each maniple had both a bugler and a trumpeter.

If necessary, one maniple of hastati, one maniple of principles and one maniple of triarii could act together; then they were called a cohort. Both Polybius and Livy begin to use this term in the latter stages of the Second Punic War, referring to the tactical unit of legionnaires with this word. In the II century. BC. the term began to be often used to name allied formations - for example, the cohort from Cremona, the cohort of Mars, etc.

How did this legion of the 2nd century compare? with the legion from the Latin War (340-338 BC)?

Polybius's army is divided into 30 maniples: 10 hastati, 10 principes and 10 triarii. The former rorarii completely disappeared, as a result of which the legion was reduced from 5,000 people to 4,200. One thousand two hundred lightly armed accensi and levis, who were now called velites, were distributed among 30 maniples.

The triarii maniple still numbered 60 people. The maniples of principles and hastati were doubled, which well reflects the new aggressive nature of the legion - from now on it did not fight for its existence, but conquered the world.

Armor and weapons
The legionnaires were armed with a piercing-cutting sword (gladius hispaniensis, Spanish gladius). The two earliest examples of such a sword were found in Smichel, Slovenia, and they date back to approximately 175 BC. They have slightly tapered blades of 62 and 66 cm in length. As the name suggests, such swords first appeared in Spain and were possibly a variant of the Celtic sword with a pointed and elongated tip. They must have been adopted during the Second Punic War, since the swords from Smichel are certainly not the piercing weapons that Polybius described as being used in the Gallic War of 225-220. BC. However, these swords quite fit the description of a weapon capable of tearing off a person’s head or releasing his entrails - Livy wrote about it when talking about the Second Macedonian War of 200-197. BC.

Polybius says nothing about daggers, but during excavations at the site of Roman camps at the end of the 2nd century. BC. near Numantia, in Spain, several specimens were discovered that clearly date back to Spanish prototypes. The hastati and principes also had two throwing spears. At that time, there were two main types of pilum, which differed in the way the iron tip was attached to the wooden shaft. They could simply be pushed onto it using a tube located at the end, or they had a flat tongue that was secured to the shaft with one or two rivets. The first type had a long history and was widespread, found in Celtic burials in northern Italy and Spain. Actually, Roman examples range in size from 0.15 to 1.2 m. The shortest was perhaps a velite javelin, "hasta velitaris". Polybius writes that it bent when hit, so it could not be picked up and thrown back.

All heavy infantrymen had a scutum - a large curved shield. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden plates glued together, which were covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. Several monuments from the times of the republic show just such a shield. As in earlier times, it is oval in shape with an oval umbo and a long vertical rib. A shield of this type was discovered at Qasr El-Harith in the Fayum Oasis, in Egypt. At first it was considered Celtic, but it is undoubtedly Roman.
1, 2 - view of a shield from the Fayum oasis in Egypt - front and three-quarters from the back. Cairo Museum.
3 - reconstruction of part of the shield, which shows its structure and how the felt was folded in half and stitched at the edge,
4 - section of the umbon.

This shield, which is 1.28 m high and 63.5 cm wide, is made of birch blades. Nine to ten such thin plates 6-10 cm wide were laid out longitudinally and laid on both sides with a layer of narrower plates laid perpendicular to the first. Then all three layers were glued together. This is how the wooden base of the shield was formed. At the edge its thickness was slightly less than a centimeter, increasing towards the center to 1.2 cm. Such shields were covered with felt, which was folded in half at the edge and stitched through the wood. The shield's handle was horizontal and held with a full grip. This type of handle is clearly visible on many Roman monuments. Polybius adds that such a shield had an iron umbo and iron padding along the upper and lower edges.

In Doncaster, the remains of a shield were discovered, the reconstruction of which turned out to weigh approximately 10 kg. The Roman shield of that time was intended to protect the body of the legionnaire; it did not require maneuvering. When advancing, the legionnaire held it with his straight arm, leaning it on his left shoulder. Having reached the enemy, he brought down the weight of his entire body along with his shield and tried to knock him over. Then he would place the shield on the ground and, crouching down, fight over it. The four-foot height of the shield was most likely regulated, since during the siege of Numantia, Scipio Aemilian severely punished a soldier whose shield was larger.
The armor of the principles and hastati consisted of a small square chest plate of approximately 20×20 cm, which was called a breastplate, and greaves for one leg. This last feature is confirmed by Arrian in his “Art of Tactics”. He writes: “... in the Roman style, greaves are on one leg in order to protect the one that is put forward in battle.” This refers, of course, to the left leg. The breastplate dates back to the square breastplate of the 4th century. BC. Not a single plate has survived to this day, although the remains of a round plate of the same type were found in Numantia. Wealthier legionnaires wore chain mail. The appearance of such chain mail, which was made on the model of linen armor, can be seen on the victorious monument of Aemilius Paulus, erected in Delphi. It was erected after the Roman victory over Macedonia in 168 BC. Such chain mail was very heavy and weighed about 15 kg. Evidence of this heaviness can be found in the story of the Battle of Lake Trasimene - the soldiers who tried to escape by swimming then sank to the bottom, dragged by the weight of their armor.

The hastati and principes had a bronze helmet decorated with three vertical plumes of black or dark red, the height of which was about 45 cm. Polybius says that they were intended to make the warrior appear twice his real height.

The most common helmet at this time was the Montefortine type, which originated from the Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries. There is a wonderful example of such a helmet in Germany, in the Karlsruhe Museum. It was found in Canosa di Puglia, a city to which many legionnaires fled after the defeat of Cannes in 216. The helmet does date to this period, and it is very tempting to believe that it belonged to one of the Cannes legionnaires.

This type of helmet had a hole in the top. The pommel was filled with lead, and a cotter pin was inserted into it to hold a horsehair comb. Under the back of the head there was a double ring to which two straps were attached. They crossed under the chin and were fastened to hooks on the cheekpieces, holding the helmet in one position. Monuments confirm that at this time they continued to use a helmet of the Italo-Corinthian type, and the find in Herculaneum of a Samnite-Attic helmet of the 1st century. BC. indicates that this type was still widespread. Helmets were usually worn with a balaclava. On a Celtic example of the Montefortine type, which is kept in Ljubljana, the remains of such a balaclava, made of felt, the most common material for this purpose, are still visible.

The armament of the triarii was the same as that of the hastati and principles, with one exception: instead of pilums, they used long spears - hastae (hastae).

The velites had a sword, javelins and a round shield (parma) about 90 cm in diameter. The darts, "hasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25-30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (approx. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick. Of the armor, the velites wore only a simple helmet, sometimes with some distinctive feature, for example, covered with wolf skin. This was done so that the centurions could recognize the velites from a distance and see how well they fought.

Cavalry and allies
Three hundred horsemen were divided into ten tours, 30 people in each. Each tour had three decurions, chosen by the tribunes, and three trailing ones (optiones). It can be assumed that these units of 10 people were in rows, which means that the cavalry was built in a line of five or ten people deep, depending on the circumstances.

The first of the elected decurions commanded the turma. The horsemen were armed according to the Greek model; they had armor, a round shield (parma equestris) and a strong spear with a pointed undercut, which could be used to continue fighting if the spear broke. The Roman horsemen on the monument in honor of the victory of Aemilius Paulus, erected at Delphi (168 BC), wear chain mail, almost identical to that worn by foot soldiers. The only exception was the slit at the hips, which allowed one to sit on the horse. The characteristic shields of the Italian cavalry can be seen on many monuments.

The tribunes dismissed the legionnaires to their homes, ordering them to arm themselves in accordance with the unit in which they were to serve.

The Allies also formed detachments of four to five thousand people, joined by 900 horsemen. One such detachment was assigned to each of the legions, so the word “legion” should be understood as a combat unit of about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen. Polybius does not describe the organization of the allied army, but it was most likely similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies. In a conventional army consisting of two legions, the Romans fought in the center, and two detachments of allies (they were called alami, i.e. wings - alae sociorum) - on the flanks. One detachment was called the right wing, and the other - the left. Each wing was commanded by three prefects appointed by the consul. A third of the Allies' best cavalry and a fifth of their best infantry were selected to form a special fighting unit - the extraordinarii. They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march.

At first, the soldiers did not receive pay, but since the long siege of Veii at the beginning of the 4th century. Legionnaires began to be paid. In the time of Polybius, a Roman infantryman received two obols a day, a centurion received twice as much, and a cavalry received six obols. A Roman infantryman received allowance in the form of 35 liters of grain per month, a horseman - 100 liters of wheat and 350 liters of barley. Of course, most of this food went to feed his horse and groom. A fixed fee for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse soldiers. Deductions were also made for clothing and equipment requiring replacement.

Allied infantry also received 35 liters of grain per man, while horsemen received only 70 liters of wheat and 250 liters of barley. However, these products were free for them.

Preparation

Gathered at a place designated by the consul, the new legions underwent a rigorous "training program." Ninety percent of the soldiers had already served in the army, but they also needed retraining, while new recruits needed to undergo basic training. During the Empire they were forced to "fight the pillar" using weighted weapons; undoubtedly something similar must have taken place during the period of the republic. A good idea of ​​what the process of retraining experienced soldiers looked like can be obtained from the story of Polybius. Scipio arranged such retraining for his soldiers after he captured New Carthage (209).

On the first day, the soldiers had to run six kilometers in full gear. On the second day, they cleaned their armor and weapons, which were inspected by their commanders. On the third day they rested, and the next day they practiced with weapons. For this they used wooden swords covered with leather. To avoid accidents, the tip of the sword was equipped with an attachment. The points of the darts used for exercise were also protected. On the fifth day the soldiers again ran six kilometers in full gear, and on the sixth they again worked on their weapons, etc.

On the march
Having completed training, the army set out to meet the enemy. The procedure for removal from the camp was strictly regulated. At the first signal of the trumpet, the tents of the consul and tribunes were rolled up. The soldiers then packed up their own tents and equipment. At the second signal they loaded the pack animals, and at the third the column set out.

In addition to his own equipment, each soldier was required to carry a bundle of stockade stakes. Polybius says that this was not very difficult, because the long shields of the legionnaires hung on leather straps on the shoulder and the only objects in their hands were javelins. Two, three or even four stakes could be tied together and also hung on the shoulder.

Usually the column was led by extraordinary people. They were followed by the right wing of the allies along with their baggage train; then came the first legion and its baggage train, and then the second legion. He led not only his baggage train, but also the pack animals of the Allied left wing, which formed the rearguard. The consul and his bodyguards - horse and foot soldiers, specially selected from among the extraordinary ones - probably rode at the head of the legions. The cavalry could form the rearguard of its formation or be placed on both sides of the convoy in order to keep an eye on the animals. If there was danger from behind, the extraordinaires formed a rearguard. It should be borne in mind that 600 extraordinary horsemen moved in scattered formation and carried out reconnaissance - regardless of whether it was the vanguard or the rearguard. Both legions, as well as both wings of the allies, changed places every other day - so that in front were either the right wing and the first legion, or the left wing and the second legion. This allowed everyone to take turns enjoying the benefits of fresh water and fodder.

If danger caught the legion in the open, the hastati, principes and triarii marched in three parallel columns. If an attack was expected from the right, then the hastati were the first on this side, followed by the principles and triarii. This allowed, if necessary, to deploy into a standard battle formation. The convoy stood to the left of each column. If there was a threat of attack from the left, the hastati were built on the left side, and the convoy on the right. This system looks like a development option for the Macedonian one. The turn into battle formation could best be accomplished if the maniples marched not in columns, but in ranks - as the Macedonians did. In this case, the first rank was already ready to meet the enemy if necessary, and there was no need for the ranks to turn around. If the main formation of the century was in six ranks of ten people, then the soldiers could march six in a row. This is exactly what they did during the empire. The army could cover a distance of about 30 km per day, but if necessary, it was able to advance much further. Among those who walked with the vanguard to ensure that the path was open were specialists in establishing crossings. Polybius mentions them when telling how Scipio crossed the river. Ticinus in winter 218 BC

The ethnic composition of the Roman army changed over time: in the 1st century. n. e. it was predominantly an army of the Romans, at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. army of the Italics, but already at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century. n. e. turned into an army of Romanized barbarians, remaining “Roman” only in name. According to other sources, if in the 1st century. BC e. Mostly people from the Apennine Peninsula served in the army, then already in the 1st century. n. e. the number of immigrants from the Apennine Peninsula in the army decreased sharply, and the number of immigrants from the Romanized Senate provinces (Asia, Africa, Baetica, Macedonia, Narbonese Gaul, etc.) increased. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, an experienced and well-trained command staff, and was distinguished by strict discipline and high military skill of commanders who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

The main branch of the army was infantry. The fleet ensured the operations of ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Military engineering, the establishment of field camps, the ability to make rapid transitions over long distances, and the art of siege and defense of fortresses received significant development.

Organizational structure

Combat units

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. the legion consisted of 10 maniple(infantry) and 10 turm(cavalry), from the first half of the 3rd century BC. e. - out of 30 maniple(each of which was divided into two centuries) and 10 turm. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical division of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 BC. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts(each of which combined three maniples). The legion also included battering and throwing machines and a convoy. In the 1st century AD e. The legion's strength reached approx. 7 thousand people (including about 800 horsemen).

In almost all periods there existed simultaneously:

Under the concept signum either maniples or centuries were understood.

Vexillations were the name given to individual units that were separated from a unit, such as a legion. So, the vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Praetorians

The elite unit of the Roman army was the Praetorian Guard, which served as the emperor's guard and was stationed in Rome. The Praetorians took part in many conspiracies and coups d'etat.

Evocats

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but were re-enlisted into the military on a voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, a consul, were called evocati- lit. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class who guarded his sleeping quarters; presumably, such guards retained their name under some subsequent emperors, cf. evocati Augusti in Hyginus). Usually they were included in almost every unit, and, apparently, if the military leader was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with the vexillaria, the evocati were exempt from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc. and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared to horsemen or even candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his exes evocati to the centurions after the end of the civil war, but in totality all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. All contingent evocati usually commanded by a separate prefect ( praefectus evocatorum).

Auxiliary troops

Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and als (in the Late Empire they were replaced by wedges - cunei). The irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical composition, as they corresponded to the traditional preferences of the peoples who composed them, for example the mauri (Moors).

Armament

• 1st class: offensive - gladius, hasta and darts ( tela), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
• 2nd class - the same, without a shell and a scutum instead clipeus;
• 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
• 4th class - hasta and pike ( verutum).

• offensive - Spanish sword ( gladius hispaniensis)

• offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
• protective - iron chain mail ( lorica hamata).

• offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

• protective - the shell of Lorica Segmentata, segmented lorica, late lamellar armor made of individual steel segments. Comes into use starting from the 1st century. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the weapons of the crupellarian gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Florus Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail also appeared during this period ( lorica hamata) with double chain mail covering on the shoulders, especially popular among cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units. Helmets of the so-called imperial type.

• offensive - “Pompeian” sword, weighted pilums.

• protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata)

A uniform

• paenula(short dark woolen cloak with a hood).

• tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military one.

Build

Manipulative tactics

It is almost generally accepted that during the period of their dominance the Etruscans introduced the phalanx to the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and formed a phalanx like the Macedonian, however, in descriptions of battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the former was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

If you want to be a tribune, or if, simply put, you want to live, then restrain your soldiers. Let none of them steal someone else's chicken, let none of them touch someone else's sheep; Let no one take away a bunch of grapes, an ear of grain, or demand oil, salt, or firewood for himself. Let everyone be content with their rightful portion... Let their weapons be cleaned, sharpened, their shoes strong... Let the soldier's salary remain in his belt, and not in the tavern... Let him take care of his horse and not sell his feed; let all the soldiers follow the centurion's mule together. Let the soldiers... give nothing to fortune tellers... let the scoundrels be beaten...

Medical service

At different periods there were 8 positions of military medical personnel:

• medicus castrorum- camp doctor, subordinate to the camp prefect ( praefectus castrorum), and in his absence - to the legionary tribune;
• medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, optio valetudinarii- the last one is the head of a military hospital (valetudinary), all 3 positions existed only under Trajan and Hadrian;
• medicus duplicarius- a doctor with double salary;
• medicus sesquiplicarius- a doctor on time and a half salary;
• capsarius (deputatus, eques capsariorum) - a mounted orderly with a first aid kit ( capsa) and with a saddle with 2 stirrups on the left side for evacuating the wounded, was part of a detachment of 8-10 people; presumably they could be recruited from among the so-called. immunes;
• medicus ordinarius (miles medicus) - an ordinary doctor or staff surgeon, there were 4 of them in each cohort.

The student was called discens capsariorum.

The recruitment could be ordinary, from recruits, from qualified doctors under a contract, from slaves who were then released, or, in emergency cases, mandatory, from civilians.

see also

Notes

Primary sources

Literature

In Russian

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• Bannikov A.V. The Roman army in the 4th century from Constantine to Theodosius. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University; Nestor-History, 2011. - 264 p. - (Historia Militaris). - ISBN 978-5-8465-1105-7.
• Boek Yan le. Roman army of the Early Empire. - M.: ROSSPEN, 2001. - 400 p. - ISBN 5-8243-0260-X.
• Van Berham J. The Roman army in the era of Diocletian and Constantine / Trans. from English A. V. Bannikova. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Publishing House; Acre, 2012. - 192 p.: ill. - (Res Militaris). - ISBN 5-288-03711-6.
• Varry John. Wars of antiquity. From the Greco-Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome / Trans. from English T. Barakina, A. Nikitina, E. Nikitina and others - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 2nd ed. - 232 p.: ill. - (Military history of mankind). - ISBN 978-5-699-30727-2.
• Golyzhenkov I. A., Parkhaev O. Army of Imperial Rome. I-II centuries n. e. - M.: LLC "AST"; Astrel, 2001. - 50 p.: ill. - (Military-historical series “Soldier”). - ISBN 5-271-00592-5.
• D'Amato Raffaelle. Warrior of Rome. The evolution of weapons and armor 112 BC. e. - 192 AD e. / Per. from Italian A. Z. Kolina. - M.: Eksmo, 2012. - 344 p.: ill. - (Military history of mankind). - ISBN 978-5-699-52194-4 ... - Lower. Novgorod: Publishing house Nizhny Novgorod. state University named after N. I. Lobachevsky, 2000. - 236 p. - ..

In English

• Birley, Eric. The Roman Army: Papers, 1929-1986
• Brunt, P. A. Italian Manpower, 225 B.C.-A. D. 14
• Campbell, Brian. The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 B.C.-A.D. 235; The Roman Army: 31 B.C.-A.D. 337; Warfare and Society in Imperial Rome, 31 B.C. - A.D. 280
• Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War
• DeBlois, Lukas. Army and Society in the Late Roman Republic; The Roman army and politics in the first century B.C.
• Erdkamp, ​​P. Hunger and the Sword. Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars (264-30 B.C.)
• Gabba, Emilio. Republican Rome. The Army and the Allies
• Gilliam, J. Frank. Roman Army Papers
• Gilliver, C. M. The Roman Art of War
• Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. Roman Warfare
• Grant, Michael, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X
• Isaac, Benjamin. The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East
• Keppie, Lawrence, The Making of the Roman Army
• Le Bohec, Yan. The Imperial Roman Army
• MacMullen, Ramsay. How Big was the Roman Army?
• Mattern, Susan P., Rome and the Enemy. Roman Imperial Strategy in the Principate
• Peddie, John. The Roman War Machine
• Webster, Graham. The Roman Imperial Army
• Kuenzl, E. The medical supply of the Roman army

In other languages

• Aigner, H. Die Soldaten als Machtfaktor in der ausgehenden römischen Republik
• Dabrowa, E. Rozwój i organizacja armii rzymskiej (do początku III wieku n.e.)

The Roman Empire was something of a gift for smart people: for centuries, classical education based on Latin allowed the elite to keep the plebeians away from the corridors of power. However, it was no wonder that the smart guy got confused in the details of the structure of the Roman army, and here’s why.

First, although the word “century” should mean a hundred, there were approximately 80 people in it. A cohort consisted of six centuries, and nine cohorts plus command staff, cavalry, and engineers constituted a legion.

Secondly, contrary to popular belief, most of the soldiers in the Roman army were not Romans at all. During the time of Hadrian, who immortalized himself by building a huge wall (Hadrian’s Wall), separating England from Scotland, the Roman army had 28 legions, that is, about 154,000 main soldiers, and more than 215,000 auxiliary troops, who were recruited mainly in the provinces.

It was an army of terrifying size, but the Romans had reasons for maintaining such an army. Together with the imperial praetorian guard, the total number of armed forces under Hadrian reached 380,000 people. According to the most conservative estimates, the population of the Roman Empire at that time was at least 65 million people (about a fifth of all inhabitants of the Earth).

The number of different types of troops of the Roman army of Emperor Hadrian (c. 130 AD) is represented by the height of the corresponding part of the pyramid (the picture is clickable and can be enlarged).

LET'S COMPARE THE ROMAN ARMY WITH THE MODERN ARMY OF GREAT BRITAIN

The population of Hadrian's empire is roughly the same size as that of modern Britain. How do the Roman army and the modern British army compare? There are now approximately 180,000 men on active service, but Britain also has about 220,000 reservists and volunteers, a total number clearly greater than Rome's. And where does Adrian stand against automatic rifles, fighter jets, and nuclear weapons? The Romans couldn’t even run away quickly in their sandals...

By the 3rd century. BC. Rome became the strongest state in Italy. In continuous wars such a perfect instrument of attack and defense was forged - the Roman army. Its entire strength usually amounted to four legions, that is, two consular armies. Traditionally, when one consul went on a campaign, the second remained in Rome. If necessary, both armies operated in different theaters of war.

The legions were accompanied by allied contingents of infantry and cavalry. The legion of the Republic era itself consisted of 4,500 people, 300 of them were horsemen, the rest were infantry: 1,200 lightly armed soldiers (velites), 1,200 heavily armed soldiers of the first line (hastati), 1,200 heavy infantry made up the second line (principles) and the last 600, the most experienced warriors represented the third line (triarii).

The main tactical unit in the legion was the maniple, consisting of two centuries. Each century was commanded by a centurion, one of them was also the commander of the entire maniple. The maniple had its own banner (badge). Initially it was a bundle of hay on a pole, then a bronze image of a human hand, a symbol of power, was attached to the top of the pole. Below, military awards were attached to the banner staff.

The armament and tactics of the Roman army in ancient times did not differ significantly from those of the Greeks. However, the strength of the Roman military organization lay in its exceptional flexibility and adaptability: as the wars that the Romans fought, they borrowed the strengths of enemy armies and changed their tactics depending on the specific conditions in which a particular war was fought.

Infantryman's weapons. Thus, the traditional heavy weapons of the infantryman, similar to the hoplite weapons of the Greeks, changed as follows. The solid metal armor was replaced by chain mail or plate armor, which was lighter and less restrictive to movement. Leggings were no longer used, because instead of a round metal shield, a semi-cylindrical one (scutum) about 150 cm high appeared, covering the entire body of the warrior, except for the head and feet. It consisted of a plank base covered with several layers of leather. The edges of the scutum were bound with metal, and in the center it had a convex metal plaque (umbon). The legionnaire had soldier's boots (kaligs) on his feet, and his head was protected by an iron or bronze helmet with a crest (for a centurion, the crest was located across the helmet, for ordinary soldiers - along).

If the Greeks had a spear as their main type of offensive weapon, the Romans had a short (about 60 cm) sword made of high-quality steel. The traditional Roman double-edged, pointed sword (gladius) has a rather late origin - it was borrowed from Spanish soldiers when the Romans experienced its advantages in hand-to-hand combat. In addition to the sword, each legionnaire was armed with a dagger and two throwing spears. The Roman throwing spear (pilum) had a long (about a meter), thin tip made of soft iron, ending with a sharply sharpened and hardened sting. At the opposite end, the tip had a groove into which a wooden shaft was inserted and then secured. Such a spear could also be used in hand-to-hand combat, but it was designed primarily for throwing: piercing into the enemy’s shield, it bent so that it was impossible to pull it out and throw it back. Since several such spears usually hit one shield, it had to be thrown, and the enemy remained defenseless against the attack of a closed formation of legionnaires.

Battle tactics. If initially the Romans acted in battle as a phalanx, like the Greeks, then during the war against the warlike mountain tribes of the Samnites they developed a special manipulative tactic, which looked like this.

Before the battle, the legion was usually built along maniples, in 3 lines, in a checkerboard pattern: the first was made up of maniples of the hastati, the second of the principles, and the triarii stood at a slightly greater distance from them. Cavalry lined up on the flanks, and light infantry (velites), armed with darts and slings, marched in front of the front in loose formation.

Depending on the specific situation, the legion could form the continuous formation necessary for the attack, either by closing the maniples of the first line, or by pushing the maniples of the second line into the intervals between the maniples of the first. Triarii maniples were usually used only when the situation became critical, but usually the outcome of the battle was decided by the first two lines.

Having reformed from the pre-battle (chessboard) formation, in which it was easier to maintain formation, into the combat one, the legion moved at an accelerated pace towards the enemy. The velites made up the first wave of attackers: having pelted the enemy formation with darts, stone and lead balls from slings, they then ran back to the flanks and into the spaces between the maniples. The legionnaires, finding themselves 10-15 m from the enemy, rained down a hail of spears and pilums on him and, drawing their swords, began hand-to-hand combat. At the height of the battle, cavalry and light infantry protected the legion's flanks and then pursued the fleeing enemy.

Camp. If the battle went badly, the Romans had the opportunity to find protection in their camp, which was always set up, even if the army stopped for only a few hours. The Roman camp was rectangular in plan (however, where possible, natural fortifications of the area were also used). It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The top of the rampart was additionally protected by a palisade and was guarded by sentries around the clock. In the center of each side of the camp there was a gate through which the army could enter or exit the camp at short notice. Inside the camp, at a distance sufficient to prevent enemy missiles from reaching it, the tents of soldiers and commanders were set up - in a once and for all determined order. In the center stood the commander's tent - the praetorium. In front of her there was free space, sufficient to line up an army here, if the commander required it.

The camp was a kind of fortress that the Roman army always carried with them. It happened more than once that the enemy, having already defeated the Romans in a field battle, was defeated when attempting to storm the Roman camp.

Subjugation of Northern and Central Italy. Continuously improving their military organization, using the troops of conquered peoples (the so-called allies) to strengthen themselves, the Romans at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. subjugated Central and Northern Italy. In the struggle for the South, they had to face such a dangerous and previously unknown enemy as Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus and one of the most talented commanders of the Hellenistic era.