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The 18th century entered the history of social thought as Age of Enlightenment as the age of reason. Reason and Enlightenment are the main slogans of the era. At the same time, this is also the “gallant age” (France). France became the hegemon of the spiritual life of Europe, and educational ideas also spread to England, Germany, Italy, and Russia. The crisis of absolutism, bourgeois revolutions, and the spread of philosophical knowledge prepared the birth of a new culture. This was expressed in a new understanding of man himself, whom the enlighteners believed could be changed for the better.

A distinctive feature of the Enlightenment ideology is is reliable on the human mind and the harmony of society through the education of people and the development of their creativity.

France gave the world such educators as J. -J. Rousseau, D. Diderot, Voltaire.

In England it is Cavendish, Fielding, J. Watt.

In Germany - Lessing, Goethe, Schiller, Kant.

In Russia - Lomonosov, Radishchev.

In the 18th century, technologies and achievements quickly changed, urban culture dominated, and appeared to people as an arena of transformative, creative activity. A new understanding of culture as the spiritual creativity of people is entering the mass consciousness of Western civilization.

The authority of science and knowledge rises during the Age of Enlightenment to unprecedented heights. The great French enlighteners - Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - gave a new interpretation of philosophical and aesthetic categories such as beauty, harmony, taste. These philosophers provided examples of a comprehensive analysis of the artistic process, individual types and genres of art. The aesthetic factor in all aspects of artistic culture becomes decisive.

In particular, Voltaire in the article “Taste” puts forward the position of the historical variability of the culture of peoples depending on the historical events they experience. He views art as a powerful means of transforming the world. Voltaire sees art as a school of morality, a powerful means of education and propaganda of new ideas.

Denis Diderot is the most versatile representative of the French Enlightenment. He is the founder and creator of the famous "Encyclopedia of Arts, Sciences and Crafts". Diderot combines the talents of a philosopher, art theorist, art critic and writer. His story “Ramo's Nephew” became widely known.

Culture of the German Enlightenment represented by the work of young German writers from the creative association “Storm and Drang”. These are I.G. Herder, I.V. Goethe, F. Schiller, F.M. Klinker and others. In their works they substantiated principles:

Historical approach to art;

The dependence of art on the natural and social environment;

National artistic culture characteristic of every nation;

Conviction of the advent of a “golden age” of art.

The work of the poets of Sturm and Drang is recognized as optimism, faith in human capabilities, and an appeal to people’s individual experiences.

In the art of the 18th century classicism acquires new features. It is closely connected with the revolutionary actions of the bourgeoisie throughout Europe, the ideals of political freedom and national independence. Classicism ceases to be a closed, isolated artistic phenomenon; it is in close contact with Baroque, Rococo, sentimentalism, and the folk culture of various European countries. The names of F. Schiller (drama “The Robber Brothers”), I. Goethe (“Faust”), J.L. David (canvas “Freedom on the Barricades”), Mozart, Bach, Beethoven resound throughout Europe. D. Defoe publishes his famous novel “Robinson Crusoe”, in which he creates the image of an energetic man of the future bourgeois era.

In the second half of the 18th century, art was formed sentimentalism - an artistic movement that proclaims natural feeling as the defining moment of life values. The English writer L. Stern publishes “A Sentimental Journey”, the heroes of which are ordinary people, presented in an emotionally rich, tearful, compassionate way. J. -J. Rousseau, in the spirit of sentimentalism, creates the novel “The New Heloise”, N. Karamzin creates the story “The Young Lady-Peasant Woman” (and “Peasant Women Can Love”). The motives of sentimentalism are heard in the works of Goethe, Schiller, Richardson, and in Russian literature in the works of N. Lvov, V. Zhukovsky. The favorite genres of sentimentalist writers are diaries, travel notes, elegies, and novels, full of confessions and moralizing messages.

In the culture of the 18th century, the foundations of utilitarian morality were laid. (“What is useful is also virtuous” by I. Bentham), B. Franklin develops the basic principles of bourgeois morality: “time is money”, “thrift and work lead to wealth”, etc.

Read the continuation of the topic “Culture of the New Time”:

Enlightenment in Europe called the ideological movement among the educated part of the European population in the second half of the 17th - 18th centuries. The main ideas of the Enlightenment were:

The idea of ​​humanism, the natural right of every person to recognition of the value of his personality, to happiness. A person is valuable regardless of his origin, nationality, race.

Condemnation of social inequality of people, exploitation of man by man. Anti-feudal sentiments.

The idea of ​​restructuring society on the basis of reason and science. Reason for the enlighteners is an active instrument of transformation, and not a passive receptacle of ideally correct knowledge given by God, as the classicists viewed it.

Criticism of the church, religious prohibitions and prejudices, critical revision of generally accepted spiritual and intellectual values.

Condemnation of political tyranny.

- The idea of ​​enlightened absolutism- rulers of countries should take care of the development of science and education among the population (“the union of kings and philosophy”)

Enlightenment in literature made an invaluable contribution to the development of such a genre as the novel. The genres of the European philosophical novel and drama were founded precisely by the Enlightenment. At the center of literary works written by educators is the image of an intellectual hero, often a figure in art or science, who seeks to reform the world or fights for a worthy place in life. The works of educators are filled with propaganda of reading books and education. The characters express the author's ideas for a better structure of society. Authors often present voluminous discussions of their characters, their correspondence about problems of economics, aesthetics, religion and church, politics, pedagogy, etc.

Outstanding representatives of the Enlightenment in literature: Voltaire, Charles Louis de Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Oliver Goldsmith, Mikhail Lomonosov, Grigory2 Skovoroda.

TO cultural values ​​of the Enlightenment This includes the rapid proliferation of newspapers, the beginning of the publication of magazines and encyclopedias, and the emergence of social clubs where debates on important social issues took place. These are academies, scientific societies, Masonic lodges, circles, secular and artistic salons and cafes.

THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Enlightenment, intellectual and spiritual movement of the late 17th and early 19th centuries. in Europe and North America. It was a natural continuation of the humanism of the Renaissance and the rationalism of the early modern era, which laid the foundations of the enlightenment worldview: the rejection of a religious worldview and an appeal to reason as the only criterion for knowledge of man and society. The name was fixed after the publication of I. Kant’s article Answer to the question: what is Enlightenment?(1784). The root word “light,” from which the term “enlightenment” comes (English: Enlightenment; French: Les Lumières; German: Aufklärung; Italian: Illuminismo), goes back to an ancient religious tradition, enshrined in both the Old and New Testaments. This is the Creator’s separation of light from darkness, and the definition of God himself as Light. Christianization itself implies the enlightenment of humanity with the light of the teachings of Christ. Rethinking this image, the enlighteners put a new understanding into it, talking about the enlightenment of man with the light of reason

The Enlightenment originated in England at the end of the 17th century. in the writings of its founder D. Locke (1632–1704) and his followers G. Bolingbroke (1678–1751), D. Addison (1672–1719), A. E. Shaftesbury (1671–1713), F. Hutcheson (1694– 1747) the basic concepts of enlightenment teaching were formulated: “common good”, “natural man”, “natural law”, “natural religion”, “social contract”. In the doctrine of natural law, set forth in Two treatises on government(1690) D. Locke, fundamental human rights are substantiated: freedom, equality, inviolability of person and property, which are natural, eternal and inalienable. People need to voluntarily enter into a social contract, on the basis of which a body (state) is created to ensure the protection of their rights. The concept of a social contract was one of the fundamental ones in the doctrine of society developed by the figures of the early English Enlightenment.

In the 18th century, France became the center of the educational movement. At the first stage of the French Enlightenment, the main figures were S. L. Montesquieu (1689–1755) and Voltaire (F. M. Arouet, 1694–1778). In the works of Montesquieu, Locke's doctrine of the rule of law was further developed. In the treatise About the spirit of laws(1748) the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was formulated. IN Persian letters(1721) Montesquieu outlined the path that French educational thought was to take with its cult of the reasonable and natural. However, Voltaire held different political views. He was an ideologist of enlightened absolutism and sought to instill the ideas of the Enlightenment in the monarchs of Europe (service with Frederick II, correspondence with Catherine II). He was distinguished by his clearly expressed anti-clerical activities, opposed religious fanaticism and hypocrisy, church dogmatism and the supremacy of the church over the state and society. The writer’s work is diverse in themes and genres: anti-clerical works Virgin of Orleans (1735), Fanaticism, or Prophet Mohammed(1742); philosophical stories Candide, or Optimism (1759), Simple-minded(1767); tragedy Brutus (1731), Tancred (1761); Philosophical letters (1733).

In the second stage of the French Enlightenment, the main role was played by Diderot (1713–1784) and the encyclopedists. Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts, 1751–1780 became the first scientific encyclopedia, which presented basic concepts in the fields of physical and mathematical sciences, natural sciences, economics, politics, engineering and art. In most cases, the articles were thorough and reflected the latest state of knowledge. Inspirers and editors Encyclopedias Diderot and J. D'Alembert (1717–1783) appeared; Voltaire, Condillac, Helvetius, Holbach, Montesquieu, Rousseau took an active part in its creation. Articles on specific areas of knowledge were written by professionals - scientists, writers, engineers.

The third period brought forward the figure of J.-J. Rousseau (1712–1778). He became the most prominent popularizer of the ideas of the Enlightenment, introducing elements of sensitivity and eloquent pathos into the rationalistic prose of the Enlightenment. Rousseau proposed his own way of political structure of society. In the treatise On the Social Contract, or Principles of Political Law(1762) he put forward the idea of ​​popular sovereignty. According to it, the government receives power from the hands of the people in the form of an order, which it is obliged to carry out in accordance with the will of the people. If it violates this will, then the people can limit, modify or take away the power given to them. One means of such a return of power could be the violent overthrow of the government. Rousseau's ideas found their further development in the theory and practice of the ideologists of the Great French Revolution.

The period of the late Enlightenment (late 18th - early 19th centuries) is associated with the countries of Eastern Europe, Russia and Germany. German literature and philosophical thought gave new impetus to the Enlightenment. German enlighteners were the spiritual successors of the ideas of English and French thinkers, but in their writings they were transformed and took on a deeply national character. The originality of the national culture and language was asserted by I.G. Herder (1744–1803). His main work Ideas for the philosophy of human history(1784–1791) became the first thorough classical work with which Germany entered the arena of world historical and philosophical science. The work of many German writers was in tune with the philosophical quest of the European Enlightenment. The pinnacle of the German Enlightenment, which gained worldwide fame, were such works as Robbers (1781), Deceit and love (1784), Wallenstein (1799), Mary Stuart(1801) F. Schiller (1759–1805), Emilia Galotti, Nathan the Wise G.E. Lessing (1729–1781) and especially Faust(1808–1832) I.-V. Goethe(1749–1832). The philosophers G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) and I. Kant (1724–1804) played an important role in the formation of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The idea of ​​progress, traditional for the Enlightenment, was developed in Critique of Pure Reason I. Kant (1724–1804), who became the founder of German classical philosophy.

Throughout the development of the Enlightenment, the concept of “reason” was at the center of the thinking of its ideologists. Reason, in the view of the Enlightenment, gives a person an understanding of both the social structure and himself. Both can be changed for the better, can be improved. In this way, the idea of ​​progress was substantiated, which was conceived as the irreversible course of history from the darkness of ignorance to the kingdom of reason. Scientific knowledge was considered the highest and most productive form of activity of the mind. It was during this era that sea travel acquired a systematic and scientific character. Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean (Easter Islands, Tahiti and Hawaii, east coast of Australia) J. Roggeveen (1659–1729), D. Cook (1728–1779), L.A. Bougainville (1729–1811), J. F. La Perouse (1741–1788) laid the foundation for the systematic study and practical development of this region, which stimulated the development of natural sciences. C. Linnaeus (1707–1778) made a great contribution to botany. In progress Plant species(1737) he described thousands of species of flora and fauna and gave them double Latin names. J.L. Buffon (1707–1788) introduced the term “biology” into scientific circulation, denoting the “science of life”. S. Lamarck (1744–1829) put forward the first theory of evolution. In mathematics, I. Newton (1642–1727) and G. W. Leibniz (1646–1716) almost simultaneously discovered differential and integral calculus. The development of mathematical analysis was promoted by L. Lagrange (1736–1813) and L. Euler (1707–1783). The founder of modern chemistry, A.L. Lavoisier (1743–1794), compiled the first list of chemical elements. A characteristic feature of the scientific thought of the Enlightenment was that it was focused on the practical use of scientific achievements in the interests of industrial and social development.

The task of educating the people, which the educators set for themselves, required careful attention to issues of upbringing and education. Hence - a strong didactic principle, manifested not only in scientific treatises, but also in literature. As a true pragmatist, who attached great importance to those disciplines that were necessary for the development of industry and trade, D. Locke spoke in his treatise Thoughts on parenting(1693). A novel of education can be called The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe(1719) D. Defoe (1660–1731). It presented a model of behavior of a reasonable individual and, from a didactic perspective, showed the importance of knowledge and work in the life of an individual. The works of the founder of the English psychological novel S. Richardson (1689–1761) are also didactic, in whose novels - Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded(1740) and Clarissa Garlow, or the Story of a Young Lady(1748–1750) - the Puritan-Enlightenment ideal of the individual was embodied. French educators also spoke about the decisive role of education. C.A. Helvetius (1715–1771) in works About the mind(1758) and About a human(1769) proved the influence of the “environment” on education, i.e. living conditions, social order, customs and morals. Rousseau, unlike other educators, was aware of the limitations of reason. In the treatise About sciences and arts(1750) he questioned the cult of science and the boundless optimism associated with the possibility of progress, believing that with the development of civilization there is an impoverishment of culture. Associated with these beliefs were Rousseau's calls for a return to nature. In the essay Emil, or About education(1762) and in the novel Julia, or New Heloise(1761) he developed the concept of natural education based on the use of the natural abilities of a child, free at birth from vices and bad inclinations that are later formed in him under the influence of society. According to Rousseau, children should have been raised in isolation from society, alone with nature.

Enlightenment thought was aimed at constructing utopian models of both the ideal state as a whole and the ideal individual. Therefore, 18th century. may be called the “golden age of utopia.” European culture of this time gave rise to a huge number of novels and treatises telling about the transformation of the world according to the laws of reason and justice - Will J. Meslier (1664–1729); The Code of Nature, or the True Spirit of Her Laws(1773) Morelli; On the rights and responsibilities of a citizen(1789) G. Mably (1709–1785); 2440(1770) L. S. Mercier (1740–1814). The novel by D. Swift (1667–1745) can be considered simultaneously as a utopia and a dystopia. Gulliver's travels(1726), which debunks such fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment as the absolutization of scientific knowledge, belief in law and natural man.

In the artistic culture of the Enlightenment there was no single style of the era, a single artistic language. Various stylistic forms simultaneously existed in it: late baroque, rococo, classicism, sentimentalism, pre-romanticism. The ratio of different types of art changed. Music and literature came to the fore, and the role of theater increased. There was a change in the hierarchy of genres. Historical and mythological painting of the “grand style” of the 17th century gave way to paintings on everyday and moralizing themes (J.B. Chardin (1699–1779), W. Hogarth (1697–1764), J.B. Greuze (1725–1805 In the genre of portrait there is a transition from ostentation to intimacy (T. Gainsborough, 1727–1788, D. Reynolds, 1723–1792). In the theater, a new genre of bourgeois drama and comedy emerges, in which a new hero, a representative of the third estate, is brought onto the stage – from P.O. Beaumarchais (1732–1799) in Barber of Seville(1775) and The Marriage of Figaro(1784), by C. Goldoni (1707–1793) in Servant of two masters(1745, 1748) and To the innkeeper(1753). In the history of world theater, the names of R.B. Sheridan (1751–1816), G. Fielding (1707–1754), and C. Gozzi (1720–1806) stand out prominently.

During the Age of Enlightenment, there was an unprecedented rise in the art of music. After the reform carried out by K.V. Gluck (1714–1787), opera became a synthetic art, combining music, singing and complex dramatic action in one performance. F. J. Haydn (1732–1809) raised instrumental music to the highest level of classical art. The pinnacle of the musical culture of the Enlightenment is the work of J. S. Bach (1685–1750) and W. A. ​​Mozart (1756–1791). The educational ideal emerges especially clearly in Mozart’s opera. magical flute(1791), which is distinguished by the cult of reason, light, and the idea of ​​man as the crown of the Universe.

The educational movement, having common basic principles, developed differently in different countries. The formation of the Enlightenment in each state was associated with its political, social and economic conditions, as well as with national characteristics.

English Enlightenment. The period of formation of educational ideology occurred at the turn of the 17th–18th centuries. This was the result and consequence of the English bourgeois revolution of the mid-17th century, which is the fundamental difference between the insular Enlightenment and the continental one. Having survived the bloody upheavals of civil war and religious intolerance, the British sought stability rather than a radical change in the existing system. Hence the moderation, restraint and skepticism that distinguishes the English Enlightenment. The national peculiarity of England was the strong influence of Puritanism on all spheres of public life, therefore, the belief in the limitless possibilities of the mind, common to Enlightenment thought, was combined among English thinkers with deep religiosity.

French Enlightenment was distinguished by the most radical views on all issues of a political and social nature. French thinkers created teachings that denied private property (Rousseau, Mably, Morelli) and defended atheistic views (Diderot, Helvetius, P.A. Holbach). It was France, which became the center of educational thought for a century, that contributed to the rapid spread of advanced ideas in Europe - from Spain to Russia and North America. These ideas also inspired the ideologists of the Great French Revolution, which radically changed the social and political structure of France.

American Enlightenment. The movement of American educators is closely connected with the struggle of the British colonies in North America for independence (1775–1783), which ended with the creation of the United States of America. The development of socio-political programs that prepared the theoretical basis for building an independent state was carried out by T. Paine (1737–1809), T. Jefferson (1743–1826) and B. Franklin (1706–1790). Their theoretical programs formed the basis for the main legislative acts of the new state: the Declaration of Independence of 1776 and the Constitution of 1787.

German Enlightenment. The development of the German Enlightenment was influenced by the political fragmentation of Germany and its economic backwardness, which determined the predominant interest of German enlighteners not in socio-political problems, but in issues of philosophy, morality, aesthetics and education. A unique version of the European Enlightenment was the literary movement “Sturm and Drang” , to which Herder, Goethe and Schiller belonged. Unlike their predecessors, they had a negative attitude towards the cult of reason, giving preference to the sensual principle in man. A feature of the German Enlightenment was also the flowering of philosophical and aesthetic thought (G. Lessing Laocoon, or on the boundaries of painting and poetry,1766; I. Winkelman History of ancient art,1764).

The Enlightenment is considered to be the stage of development of European culture at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 19th century. Rationalism, intelligence, science - these three concepts began to come to the fore. The basis of the Enlightenment ideology is faith in man. The eighteenth century is a time of man's great hopes for himself and his capabilities, a time of faith in the human mind and the high purpose of man. The enlighteners were convinced that healthy fantasy, imagination, and feeling must be formed. Books began to appear in which writers wanted to put as much information as possible about the world around people, to give them an idea of ​​other countries and continents. Of course, one cannot help but recall such famous people as Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau. A whole variety of genres, from the scientific encyclopedia to the educational novel, appeared during this period. In this regard, Voltaire said: “All genres are beautiful, except the boring.”

Voltaire(1694-1778)

Voltaire's creative legacy is enormous: fifty volumes of six hundred pages each. It was about him that Victor Hugo said that “this is not a person, this is an ERA.” Voltaire still has the fame of an outstanding scientist, philosopher, and poet. What can be found in Voltaire's Philosophical Letters? Principles of philosophy that are still relevant today: tolerance, the right to freely express one’s own thoughts. What about religion? This was also a hot topic. It turns out that the enlighteners, in particular Voltaire, did not reject the existence of God, but rejected the influence of God on the fate of man. It is known that the Russian Empress Catherine the Great corresponded with Voltaire. After the death of the philosopher, she wanted to buy his library along with their correspondence - however, the letters were bought and subsequently published by Pierre Augustin Beaumarchais, the author of The Marriage of Figaro.

By the way, Voltaire’s working day lasted from 18 to 20 hours. At night he often got up, woke up his secretary and dictated to him, or wrote himself. He also drank up to 50 cups of coffee a day.

Jean Jacques Rousseau(1712 – 1778)

Rousseau was not a supporter of radical measures, but his ideas were inspired by the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution.

Just like Voltaire, he is a French philosopher, one of the most influential thinkers of the 18th century, the ideological predecessor of the French Revolution. In his first works, Rousseau expressed the tenets of his worldview. The foundations of civil life, division of labor, property, state and laws are only the source of inequality, unhappiness and depravity of people. Based on the idea that man is naturally endowed with an inclination towards goodness, Rousseau believed that the main task of pedagogy is the development of the good inclinations endowed in man by nature. From this point of view, Rousseau rebelled against any violent methods in education, and especially against cluttering the child's mind with unnecessary knowledge. Rousseau's ideas influenced the leaders of the French Revolution, they are written into the American Constitution, his educational theories still make themselves felt indirectly in almost every school throughout the world, and his influence on literature continues to this day. Rousseau developed his political ideas in a number of works, the pinnacle of which is the treatise “On the Social Contract” published in 1762. “Man is born to be free, and yet he is in chains everywhere.” These words, which begin the first chapter of the treatise, went around the whole world.

By the way, Jean Jacques Rousseau was the author of a musical dictionary and wrote the comic opera “The Village Sorcerer,” which became the founder of French vaudeville operas and lasted on the French opera stage for more than 60 years. As a result of his conflict with the church and government (early 1760s, after the publication of the book “Emile, or On Education”), the suspicion initially characteristic of Rousseau acquired extremely painful forms. He saw conspiracies everywhere. It was his “Social Contract” that inspired the fighters for the ideals of the Great French Revolution; Rousseau himself, paradoxically, was never a supporter of such radical measures.

Denis Diderot(1713-1784)

Diderot enjoyed traveling around Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

French philosopher-educator - foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Founder and editor of the Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts. In the philosophical works of Denis Diderot, being a supporter of the enlightened monarchy, he came out with an irreconcilable criticism of absolutism, the Christian religion and the church, and defended (based on sensationalism) materialist ideas. Diderot's literary works were written mainly in the tradition of the realistic everyday novel of the Enlightenment. If the bourgeoisie sought to destroy class barriers between itself and the privileged nobility, then Diderot destroyed class barriers in literary genres. From now on, the tragedy became more humanized. All classes could be represented in a dramatic work. At the same time, the rationalistic construction of characters gave way to a real depiction of living people. Like Voltaire, he did not trust the masses of the people, who, in his opinion, were incapable of sound judgment in “moral and political questions.” Diderot maintained friendly relations with Dmitry Golitsyn. As an art critic, he wrote annual reviews of art exhibitions - "Salons". And from 1773 to 1774, Diderot, at the invitation of Catherine II, traveled to Russia and lived in St. Petersburg.

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Montesquieu developed the doctrine of separation of powers.

Full name: Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron La Brade et de Montesquieu. French writer, lawyer and philosopher, author of the novel “Persian Letters”, articles from the “Encyclopedia, or Explanatory Dictionary of Sciences, Arts and Crafts”, work “On the Spirit of Laws”, supporter of the naturalistic approach to the study of society. Developed the doctrine of separation of powers. Montesquieu led a simple solitary life and concentrated with full spiritual strength and deep seriousness on the task of an observer, a thinker and a seeker of norms. The post of President of the Parliament of Bordeaux, which went to Montesquieu in 1716, soon began to weigh heavily on him. In 1726 he resigned this position, but, as the owner of the castle of La Brede, he faithfully maintained the corporate beliefs of the parliamentary aristocracy.

He represented a type of French aristocrat, already rare at that time, who did not allow himself to be caught by the temptations of the court, and became a scientist in the spirit of noble independence. The large trips around Europe undertaken by Montesquieu in 1728-1731 had the character of serious research trips. Montesquieu actively visited literary salons and clubs and was acquainted with many writers, scientists, and diplomats. Among his interlocutors, for example, is the French researcher of controversial issues of international law Gabriel Mably.

1 See; Markov G.E. History of economy and material culture in primitive and early class society. M.: MSU, 1979. P. 1920.

1 Chelles culture - about 600-400 thousand years ago, so named after finds near the city of Chelles (France). It is characterized by extremely primitive stone tools and hand axes. Economy: hunting and gathering. The physical type of a person is Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Atlantropus, Heidelberg Man, etc.

2 Exogamy is the prohibition of marriage within one group.

1 Rigveda - a collection of religious hymns with ideological and cosmological content, took shape in the 10th century. BC.

1 See: Story National Economy: Dictionary-Reference Book / Ed. A.N. Markova.
– M.: VZFEI, 1995. – P. 19.

1 The Hittite kingdom arose in the 17th century BC. on the territory of Asia Minor; in its heyday (XIV-XIII centuries BC) also included some areas of the Eastern Mediterranean and Northern Mesopotamia. In the 12th century. BC. under the onslaught of the Sea Peoples, the Hittite state ceased to exist.

1 Founded in the 16th century. BC. tribes of Hurrians who came from the Iranian plateau; occupied a significant part of Northern Mesopotamia in the 14th century. BC. was subjugated by the Hittites.

1 On the territory of the Eastern Mediterranean back in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. city-states appear, the largest of which were Ebla and Ugarit in Syria, Hazor in Palestine, Byblos and Sidon in Phenicia. In the 12th century. BC. The Israeli state begins to form in Palestine.

2 This state arose in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. in the valley of the Kerkh and Karun rivers (southwest of modern Iran): the history of Elam is closely connected with the history of Mesopotamia. XII century BC. was the heyday of the state, in the 6th century. BC. it became part of the Achaemenid state.

1 Existed at the end of the 4th-1st centuries. BC, covered part of the territory of the Middle East, Iran and Afghanistan.

1 Greek archaio - ancient.

1 Cities united in a Union (from German Hansa - union).

1 Spanish conqueror-adventurers.

1 The Independents (English - literally independent) - a political party that expressed the interests of the radical wing of the bourgeoisie and the bourgeoisified new nobility, were in power in 1649-1660.

1 Levellers (English - literally equalizers) are a radical political party.

2 Diggers (English - lit. diggers) - the extreme left wing of revolutionary democracy, separated from the Leveler movement.

1 In the XV-XVII centuries. French kings waged a long struggle with the Habsburgs: the Italian wars of 1494-1559, the Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. In 1667, France began the War of Devolution against Spain, using the so-called devolution law as a pretext. According to the Peace of Anhen concluded in 1668, France retained 11 cities it had captured, but returned Frant-Comte to Spain.

1 Anabaptists demanded secondary baptism (at a conscious age), denied church hierarchy, opposed wealth, and advocated community of property.

1 Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 7. – P. 342.

1 The Ansei Treaties are unequal treaties concluded by the United States, Russia, England and France with Japan in 1854-1858, which put an end to the external isolation of Japan.

1 Marx K. Engels F. Soch. T.4. – P. 524.

XVII - XVIII centuries became the beginning of a radical change in the development of mankind. What are their characteristics?

Firstly, the stage of the Great Geographical Discoveries ended. There is practically no so-called left on the globe. "white spots" - man began to penetrate everywhere.

Secondly, great scientific revolutions began that made man truly omnipotent.

Thirdly, the era of bourgeois revolutions has opened, which will sweep away all the barriers that hinder human creativity and genius.

Fourthly, the influence of the church in the political, economic and cultural life of society has weakened significantly. The process of secularization will begin and develop (from the Latin cacularis - worldly, secular), i.e. liberation of public and individual consciousness from the influence of the church.

Cultural scientists believe that the era of enlightenment lasted approximately 100 years - from 1688-1689 (bourgeois revolution in England) to 1789 - bourgeois revolution in France.

If we define this era, it can be briefly formulated as follows: this is an ideological and social movement in the countries of Europe and America, associated with general changes in people’s lives, the decomposition of feudal and the emergence of capitalist relations.

The general ideology of the culture of the Enlightenment was social protest, which was expressed:

in criticism of idealism and dogmatism;

in the criticism of the art of classicism and the struggle for realism;

in the denial of the outdated legal system in society and attempts to scientifically substantiate the new law.

The educators fought for the “kingdom of reason” on Earth, which was to be based on the natural equality of all people, political freedom, non-violence, a critical attitude towards authorities and rejection of dogma.

Enlightenment, according to the thoughts of its active preachers, is the exit of humanity from the state of minority in which it was due to its own fault. The main features of the Enlightenment idea were formulated by the famous English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704). Acquaintance with his work allows us to conclude that he was a man of genius. In his numerous works ("Letter on Tolerance", "Essays Concerning Human Understanding", "Two Treatises on Government", etc.) he put forward the ideas of liberalism (the main goal of any government is to protect people as well as their property); social contract in society ("... people retain the supreme power to change legislators if they do not justify the trust placed in them); religious tolerance ("... neither a pagan, nor a Muslim, nor a Jew should be deprived of civil rights because of their religion ) and many others.

Locke's ideas quickly penetrated the European continent - especially France and became an important factor leading to the French Revolution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

François Marie Arouet, better known by his pseudonym Voltaire, (1694-1778) was by far the leading figure of the French Enlightenment. Poet, playwright, novelist, historian and philosopher, Voltaire was the apostle of free-thinking liberalism. He lived a long, eventful life and left behind a huge literary heritage. A staunch supporter of freedom, he spends a whole year imprisoned in the Bastille. His authority was so high that all the powerful of the world of that time were forced to reckon with him. He lives for three years in Prussia at the court of Frederick the Great and is not afraid to tell him the truth to his face; For many years he has been in correspondence with Tsarina Catherine the Great, who listens to his advice with great attention; he quarrels with the king of France and lives away from Paris for 15 years, etc.

One of Voltaire's strongest beliefs was that every society must have freedom of speech and freedom of the press. He is credited with a phrase that would become the leitmotif of the work of the English Parliament: “I do not agree with what you say, but I will die for you to say it.” A staunch supporter of peace and non-violence, he spent his entire life proving his thesis that “... the history of culture in society is more important than its political history” (for more details, see Appendix 3). Voltaire was most often opposed by another figure of the French enlightenment, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). The idea of ​​social slavery dominates his political works (“...man is born free, but everywhere he is chained”).

Their fundamental disagreements over private property ultimately had a profound impact on future class struggles throughout the developed world.

France gave the world the number one encyclopedist - Diderot (1713-1784). Political scientist Montesquieu (1689-1755) in his work “On the Spirit of Laws” for the first time spoke about the division of powers in the state into legislative, executive and judicial. His aphorisms sound very modern. “The best way to instill in children a love for the Fatherland is for their fathers to have this love.” “The envious person is his own enemy, because he suffers from evil created by himself.”

The main bearer of the ideas of the Enlightenment in the then Prussia (future Germany) was the philosopher I. Kant (1724-1804) “... we are too civilized in the sense of politeness and politeness in dealing with each other. But we still have a lot to do before we are considered morally perfect ". The great philosopher, in one of his many works, “Towards Eternal Peace,” brilliantly anticipates the idea of ​​a world organization (the prototype of the UN), which will stop wars on Earth forever and establish “eternal peace.” His remarkable statement, made at the end of his life, sounds like music: “...And the more I think, the more two things fill my soul with ever new surprise and growing awe: the starry sky above me and the moral law in me.” And I. Kant left a clear instruction to students: “... it is not thoughts that need to be learned, but how to think!” In his treatise "Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?" I. Kant speaks about the main thing in this state of culture - one’s own mind: “Be brave... and use your own mind.” This is the motto of the Enlightenment.

Along with science, art actively developed during the Enlightenment. It was at this time that two styles were actively developing in the art of Europe: romanticism and classicism. In the art of different countries and peoples, classicism and romanticism form a wonderful synthesis, which gives expression in the works of writers, poets, artists, sculptors, and musicians.

Great representatives of the culture of that time, such as writers: D. Defoe (1660-1731), J. Swift (1667-1754); musicians: S. Bach (1685-1750), G. F. Handel (1685-1759), J. Haydn (1732-1809), W. A. ​​Mozart (1756-1751), L. V. Beethoven; artists: W. Hogarth (1697-1767), T. Gainsborough (1727-1788); playwrights: R. Sheridan (1751-1816), C. Gozzi (1720-1806), L. Beaumarchais (1732-1799), I. Goethe (1775-1787), F. Schiller (1759-1805) and many others laid the foundation for many years to come, the foundations of the aesthetics of the future.

Within the framework of the Enlightenment, such cultural movements as sentimentalism and rococo (from “rocaille” - diamond) arose. Realism is maturing in the depths of the Enlightenment - this direction is destined for a great and glorious future.

Summing up some results of the Enlightenment, I would like to note that it was a century of great discoveries and great misconceptions.

The cultural heritage of the 18th century still amazes with its unusual diversity, richness of genres and styles, depth of understanding of human passions, greatest optimism and faith in man and his mind.

Education- an ideological and social movement in the countries of Europe and America, associated with general changes in living conditions under the influence of the decomposition of feudal and the establishment of capitalist production relations. Conventionally, the historical framework of the Age of Enlightenment can be limited to 1689 - 1789. The first is a date from English history: in 1688, as Western historians put it, a “glorious revolution” took place in England. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was perceived by contemporaries as the embodiment of the educational ideas of Freedom, Equality, Fraternity, which became its slogans. The Enlightenment left an indelible mark on science, literature, art, politics (enlightened absolutism), but mainly on the history of socio-political thought and social movements.

Figures of the Enlightenment fought for the establishment of the “kingdom of reason,” primarily ensured by the development of science. The basis of such a “kingdom of reason” should be “natural equality,” and hence political freedom and civil equality.

Despite the diversity of opinions, most thinkers agreed on their assessment. Enlightenment as an advanced innovative phenomenon. For example, Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) understood the Enlightenment as an attempt to use reason in the interests of moral and intellectual emancipation of the individual, and Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895) saw in it the ideological preparation of bourgeois revolutions.

The Enlighteners included materialists and idealists, supporters of rationalism (who recognized reason as the basis of human knowledge and behavior), sensationalism (who considered it a sensation) and even divine conduct (who trusted in the will of God). Some of them believed in the inevitable progress of mankind, while others viewed history as social regression.

As a movement of social thought, the Enlightenment represented a certain unity. It consisted in a special state of mind, intellectual inclinations and preferences. These are, first of all, the goals and ideals of the Enlightenment, such as freedom, welfare and happiness of people, peace, non-violence, religious tolerance, etc., as well as the famous freethinking, a critical attitude towards authorities of all kinds, and rejection of dogmas. Scientific knowledge, which was previously the property of a narrow circle of scientists, is now spreading wider, going beyond universities and laboratories, to the secular salons of London and Paris, becoming the subject of discussion not only by scientists, but also by writers who popularly present the latest achievements of science and philosophy. Confidence in the power of the human mind, in its limitless possibilities, in the progress of science, which creates conditions for economic and social prosperity - this is the pathos of the Enlightenment.

The educators convinced that by educating the masses, educated monarchs would lead to the abolition of lawlessness and injustice.

Enlighteners came from different classes and estates: aristocracy, nobles, clergy, employees, commercial and industrial circles; The conditions in which they lived were also varied. In each country, the educational movement bore the imprint of national identity.

In England in the 17th - 18th centuries. After the revolution and civil wars, sharp contradictions in society smoothed out. The development of parliamentarism led to the strengthening of legal forms of political struggle. The English Church did not oppose itself to the Enlightenment, and to some extent even responded to its ideal of religious tolerance. This contributed to the cultural development of the country, since it made it possible to maintain a balance between traditional values, the custodian of which was the church, and the innovative ones brought by the Enlightenment.

The main outlines of the political program of the English Enlightenment were formulated by the philosopher John Locke (1632 - 1704). His main work, “An Essay on Human Understanding,” contained a positive program that was accepted not only by English but also by French educators. According to Locke, the inalienable human rights include three basic rights: life, liberty and property. For Locke, the right to property is closely related to the high value of human labor. Locke's views are close to Adam Smith's labor theory of value. Locke, like representatives of classical bourgeois political economy, is convinced that the property of each person is the result of his labor. Legal equality of individuals is a necessary consequence of the acceptance of the three inalienable rights. Like most enlighteners, Locke proceeds from the idea of ​​​​the inalienable rights of isolated individuals and their private interests; the legal order must ensure that everyone can benefit, but in such a way that the freedom and private interests of everyone else are also respected. Locke emphasized: “We are born into the world with such abilities and powers that contain the possibility of mastering almost any thing and which in any case can lead us further than we can imagine; but only the exercise of these powers can give us skill and art.” in anything and lead us to perfection"

The Enlightenment contributed to the consolidation in the character of the British of such traits as enterprise, ingenuity, and practicality.

The Scottish Enlightenment was greatly influenced by the activities of the Philosophical Society in Edinburgh, which united the best minds of the time. Its secretary was David Hume (1711 - 1776), and one of its members was the philosopher and economist Adam Smith (1723 - 1790). This outstanding theorist of commodity-money relations became their ardent defender and propagandist largely for moral and ethical reasons. In his theory, Smith devoted a large place to the market, believing that it was the market that freed man from the stultifying system of dependence under feudalism.

The French Enlightenment is represented by F. Voltaire (1694 - 1778), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778), Denis Diderot (1713 - 1784), Charles Montesquieu (1689 - 1755), Paul Henri Holbach (1723 - 1789) and others. In France, the lot of the enlighteners was a kind of “renegadeism,” which gave rise to political radicalism and messianic sentiments and opposition to the existing system among them. Sometimes their protest took the form of atheism, sometimes it manifested itself in the idealization of the past, for example, the republican system of ancient states. An entire stage in the development of the educational movement in France is associated with the name of Rousseau - a radical revision of some of its fundamental goals and ideals. Rousseau's radicalism was based on his ethical views. In contrast to philosophers who considered selfishness and egoism compatible with the public good, he demanded the subordination of the individual to the good of society. Rousseau wrote:

“Every person is virtuous when his private will corresponds in everything to the general will.”

The most prominent representative of the German Enlightenment was Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804). Kant's famous questions: “What can I know?”, “What should I do?”, “What can I hope for?” - were prepared by previous philosophy. Kant's work "Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime" (1764) brought him fame as a fashionable writer. The beautiful and sublime serves as the core on which he strings his observations about the human person. The subject of theoretical philosophy, according to Kant, should not be the study of things in themselves - nature, the world, man, but the study of activity, the establishment of the laws of the human mind and its boundaries. Kant summed up the theoretical quests of the Enlightenment. His contribution to the development of the theory of the rule of law is especially significant.

“Paternal rule,” he wrote, “under which the subjects, even minors, are not able to discern what is really useful or harmful for them... such rule is the greatest despotism.”

Kant substantiated the legal forms and methods of struggle to change the state and social system, which presuppose the path of gradual reforms and exclude brute force.

The Russian Enlightenment inherited the problems of the European Enlightenment, comprehended and developed it in a completely original way, in the context of the unique historical situation that developed in Russian society at that time. According to the enlighteners, the greatness of man, his difference from other creatures generated by nature, lies in his mind. A person endowed with reason is able to work creatively, thereby ensuring the progress of humanity. This admiration for man as the most perfect creation of nature is characteristic of all educational thought. But it sounds especially vivid in the poem by I.P. Pnin (1773 - 1805) "Man". This is a kind of hymn to his greatness, to those deeds through which a person overcomes the slave within himself.

Enlighteners create a special moral philosophy, with the help of which they determine the basic principles of ethics and behavior of people in society. The main provisions of moral philosophy are set out in the work of A.P. Kunitsyna (1783 - 1840) "Natural Law". Morality in this essay is considered as a natural manifestation of human nature. At the same time, Russian educators also thought about why free-thinking, as a deep-seated human need, is so difficult to realize in real conditions. Freedom or love of freedom is considered by Russian enlighteners as an absolute value. Without freedom, a person cannot exist; all his actions are dictated by the desire to gain freedom.

A huge place in the works of Russian enlighteners was given to the reconstruction of society. The goal of a free society, according to educators, is the well-being of citizens. “The state is only happy when it is loved by its compatriots,” wrote A.F. Bestuzhev (1761 - 1810). Living in a society based on freedom and happiness, a person must be a worthy citizen. Therefore, the interest of educators in the problem of personality education was enormous. The treatise by A.F. is devoted to this topic. Bestuzhev "On Education". The philosophical and anthropological thought of Russian enlighteners was distinguished by significant diversity, depth and originality. It covered a wide range of political, ideological and moral problems and such an acute problem of Russian reality as the situation of the peasants.

The development of enlightenment in Russia was started by M.V. Lomonosov. Through his efforts, a university was opened in Moscow. The ideas of enlightenment are widespread in Russian literature - in the works of D.I. Fonvizina (1744/45 - 1792), G.R. Derzhavin (1743 - 1816), V.K. Trediakovsky (1703 - 1768). Representatives of this trend in Russian painting were F.S. Rokotov (1735 - 1808), D.G. Levitsky (ca. 1735 - 1822).

The herald of revolutionary sentiments in Russia A.N. Radishchev (1749 - 1802) in his works (odes, "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", 1790) reflected a wide range of ideas of the Russian Enlightenment and, above all, a sharp denunciation of autocracy and serfdom.

The largest representative of Russian enlightenment N.I. Novikov (1744 - 1818). Publisher of satirical magazines "Truten", "Painter", "Wallet", organizer of printing houses, libraries, bookstores (in 16 cities). The books published with his participation covered all branches of knowledge. He opposed serfdom. In 1792 - 1796 By order of Catherine II (1729 - 1796), Novikov was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.

The diversity of ideas of educators, united by common goals and ideals, was a prerequisite for the exceptional fruitfulness of their creative activity. In the endless disputes between them, modern concepts of human and civil rights, civil society and pluralistic democracy, the rule of law and the separation of powers, a market economy and the ethics of individualism were born. The peoples of many countries have paid dearly for attempts to neglect this heritage.

The 18th century also prepared the way for the dominance of bourgeois culture. The old, feudal ideology was replaced by the time of philosophers, sociologists, economists, and writers of the new age of Enlightenment. Aesthetic innovation in the 18th century. manifested itself not so much in the desire to break or even reconstruct traditional forms, but rather in the throwing of some other forms that exist bypassing tradition and, as it were, independently of it.

The main literary genre of the Enlightenment was the novel. The success of the novel, especially significant in England, was prepared by the success of educational journalism. Enlightenment writers were well aware of how imperfect modern society is and how flawed man is, and yet they hoped at least that, like Robinson from the first part of the novel by Daniel Defoe (c. 1660 - 1731), humanity, relying on its own reason and hard work, will ascend to the heights of civilization, where happiness awaits him. But perhaps this hope is illusory, as Jonathan Swift (1667 - 1754) so ​​clearly testifies in the book “Gulliver’s Travels”, when he sends his hero to the island of intelligent horses. How irrevocably far a person has gone from this patriarchal-just life, and dreaming of a reasonable ideal, does he not in reality resemble evil Yahoos, whose highest happiness is to greedily sort through precious stones?

Deploying a positive program in their books, educators widely presented how a person lives, deceiving and being deceived.

The moral ideal invariably coexists with satire. In novels, for example, G. Fielding's (1707 - 1754) "The History of Tom Jones, Foundling", they often resorted to a parallel plot structure, reminiscent of a fairy tale: about good and evil brothers, each of whom is eventually rewarded what he deserves. The education of a natural person is presented with all theoretical thoroughness in the treatises of J.-J. Rousseau (1712 - 1778) and his novels "Julia, or the New Heloise" and "Emile, or On Education."

Nature was the model of all that was good and beautiful for the enlighteners. Her real cult would be created by sentimentalists in the 60s. XVIII century, but the fascination with naturalness, its enthusiastic contemplation begins with the Enlightenment itself.

It was a time of new philosophical convictions, a time when ideas were not only presented in treatises, but easily migrated into novels, inspired poets and were sung by them. A wide range of educational thought is presented by A. Pop (1688 - 1744) in the didactic poem “An Essay on Man,” which became a textbook of new philosophy for Europe. The publication of its first Russian edition in 1757 was actually the beginning of the Russian Enlightenment.

At the end of the XVII - XVIII centuries. The musical language that the whole of Europe will then speak begins to take shape. The first were Johann Sebastian Bach (1685 - 1750) and George Frideric Handel (1685 - 1759). Bach, the great German composer and organist, worked in all musical genres except opera. He is still an unsurpassed master of polyphony. Handel, like Bach, used biblical scenes for his works. His most famous works are “Saul”, “Israel in Egypt”, “Messiah”. Handel wrote more than 40 operas, he owns organ concerts, sonatas, and suites.

The Viennese classical school and its most prominent masters - Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven - had a huge influence on the musical art of Europe. Viennese classics rethought and made all musical genres and forms sound in a new way.

Joseph Haydn (1732 - 1809) is called the "Father of the Symphony". He created more than 100 symphonies. Many of them are based on themes of folk songs and dances, which the composer developed with amazing skill. The pinnacle of his work was the “12 London Symphonies,” written during the composer’s triumphant trips to England in the 90s. XVIII century Haydn wrote many wonderful quartets (83) and keyboard sonatas (52). He owns over 20 operas, 14 masses, a large number of songs and other compositions. At the end of his career, he created two monumental oratorios - “The Creation of the World” (1798) and “The Seasons” (1801), which express thoughts about the greatness of the universe of human life.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 - 1791) wrote music and played the violin and harpsichord at an age when other children did not yet know how to add letters. Wolfgang's extraordinary abilities developed under the guidance of his father, the violinist and composer Leopold Mozart. WITH

1781 Mozart lives in Vienna, where his creative genius begins to flourish. In the operas “The Abduction from the Seraglio” (1782), “The Marriage of Figaro” (1786), “Don Giovanni” (1788), “The Magic Flute” (1791), Mozart with amazing skill creates diverse and lively human characters, shows life in its contrasts , moving from jokes to deep seriousness, from fun to subtle poetic lyrics. The same qualities are inherent in his symphonies, sonatas, concerts, and quartets, in which he creates the highest classical examples of genres. The pinnacles of classical symphonism were three symphonies written in 1788 (Mozart wrote about 50 in total). The symphony "E flat major" (No. 39) shows a person's life full of joy, play, and cheerful dance movement. The symphony "G minor" (No. 40) reveals the deep lyrical poetry of the movement of the human soul, the drama of its aspirations. Symphony

“C major” (No. 41), called “Jupiter” by contemporaries, embraces the whole world with its contrasts and contradictions, affirming the rationality and harmony of its structure.

“Music should strike fire from human hearts,” said Ludwig Van Beethoven (1770 - 1827), whose work belongs to the highest achievements of human genius. A man of republican views, he affirms the dignity of the individual artist-creator. Beethoven was inspired by heroic stories. Such are his only opera “Fidelio” and the music for J. V. Goethe’s drama “Egmont”. The winning of freedom as a result of persistent struggle is the main idea of ​​his work. Beethoven's entire mature creative life is connected with Vienna; here, as a young man, he delighted Mozart with his playing, studied with Haydn, and here became famous as a pianist. The spontaneous power of dramatic collisions, the sublimity of philosophical lyrics, rich, sometimes rude humor - we can find all this in the infinitely rich world of his sonatas (he wrote 32 sonatas in total). The lyrical and dramatic images of the Fourteenth (“Moonlight”) and Seventeenth sonatas reflected the composer’s despair during the most difficult period of his life, when Beethoven was close to suicide due to hearing loss. But the crisis was overcome: the appearance of the Third Symphony (1804) marked the victory of human will. In the period from 1803 to 1813. he created most of the symphonic works. The variety of creative endeavors is truly limitless. The composer is attracted to chamber genres. Evidence of this is the vocal cycle “To a Distant Beloved”. Beethoven strives to penetrate the innermost depths of man's inner world. The apotheosis of his work is the Ninth Symphony (1823) and the Solemn Mass (1823).

The fine arts of the 18th century, in the best works, are characterized by analysis of the subtlest human experiences, reproduction of the nuances of feelings and moods. Intimacy, lyricism of images, analytical observation (sometimes merciless) are characteristic features of the art of the 18th century. These properties of artistic perception of life had a noticeable impact on the development of world artistic culture.

Development of European art of the 18th century. complex and uneven. In Italy, the highest achievements are associated with the Venetian school. In France, the evolution from Rococo to art with a programmatic civic orientation can be traced. In art and especially in literature in England, the characteristic features of realism were already emerging. The young Goya (1746 - 1828) in Spain prepared the romanticism of the new century with all his creativity. The most valuable heritage of the 18th century. the foundations of aesthetics and art history laid down in it appeared as a truly scientific discipline, the development of which is closely connected with the successes of philosophy.

Italian art of the 18th century. reached its heyday only in Venice, which was the center of the musical (opera theaters, music academies and conservatories) and theatrical (dramatic works of Goldoni and Gozzi) life of Europe, book printing, and world-famous glassmaking (Venetian glass). It was also famous for its festivals, regattas, and most importantly, masquerades, which lasted almost all year round, except for Lent. This theatricalization of life, the penetration of theater into real life and, as it were, a mixture of theater and real life left an imprint on all the fine art of Venice in the 18th century.

The exponent of the spirit of Venice was Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696 - 1770), the largest Italian painter of the 18th century, the last representative of the Baroque in European art. Tiepolo painted gigantic scale paintings, both church and secular.

Venice XVIII century gave the world wonderful masters of the vedata - the urban architectural landscape: Antonio Canaletto (1697 - 1768)1, famous for his solemn pictures of the life of Venice against the backdrop of its fabulous theatrical architecture ("Reception of the French Embassy in Venice"), and a more poetic, more romantic master, conveying the finest shades colors the very air of Venice and its lagoons, Francesco Guardi (1712 - 1793) (“Venetian courtyard”).

English art of the 18th century. - the flourishing of the national school of painting in England - begins with William Hogarth (1697 - 1764), painter, graphic artist, art theorist, author of the series of paintings “The Career of a Prostitute”, “The Career of Mota”. Hogarth was the only artist of the English Enlightenment and the first Enlightenment painter in Europe. His art is firmly connected with the art of theater, satirical magazines, and the literature of the Enlightenment. He outlined his aesthetic views in the treatise “Analysis of Beauty” (1753). Hogarth did a lot to introduce art exhibitions.

A remarkable portrait artist of this time was Thomas Gainsborough (1727 - 1788). Gainsborough's portrait images, often placed against the background of a soft idyllic landscape, are characterized by spiritual sophistication, spirituality and poetry. It is significant that

this genre occupies a central place within the walls of the Royal Academy of Art, opened in 1768.

In the first half of the 18th century, when the process of replacing religious culture with secular culture was so active, the leading direction in French art of the 18th century. became rococo. All Rococo art is built on asymmetry, creating a feeling of unease - a playful, mocking, pretentious, teasing feeling. It is no coincidence that the origin of the term “rococo” is traced back to the word “shell” (French rocaille). The plots are only love, erotic, beloved heroines - nymphs, bacchantes, Dianas, Venuses, performing their endless “triumphs” and “toilets”. A prominent representative of French Rococo was Francois Couchet (1703 - 1770). “The King’s first artist,” as he was officially called, director of the Academy, Couchet was a true son of his age, who knew how to do everything himself: panels for hotels, paintings for rich houses and palaces, cardboards for tapestry manufacture, theater scenery, book illustrations, drawings of fans , wallpaper, mantel clocks, carriages, costume sketches, etc. Typical subjects of his paintings are “The Triumph of Venus” or “Toilet of Venus”, “Venus with Cupid”, “Diana’s Bathing”, etc.

Enlightenment ideas not only influenced the development of art in general, educators actively intervened in its course. The Salons of Denis Diderot (1713 - 1784) were the first form of critical literature on art. In line with new aesthetic ideas in art, the work of Jean Baptiste Simon Chardin (1699 - 1779), an artist who created, in essence, a new pictorial system, is developing. Chardin began with still life, painted kitchen items: cauldrons, pots, tanks, then moved on to genre painting: “Prayer before dinner” (about 1740), “Washwoman” (about 1735), and from there to portrait .

French sculpture of the 18th century. goes through the same stages as painting. These are predominantly rocaille forms in the first half of the century and an increase in classical features in the second. Features of lightness, freedom, and dynamics are visible in the sculpture of Jean Baptiste Pigalle (1714 - 1785), in his “Mercury Tying His Sandal” (1744), full of charm, light, swift movement, spontaneity and grace. Jean Antoine Houdon (1741 - 1828), a true historiographer of French society, conveyed the spiritual atmosphere of the era in his sculptural portrait gallery. Houdon's "Voltaire" is evidence of the highest level of French art.

The French Revolution and the socio-political cataclysms it caused at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. on the European continent, the Enlightenment's faith in the possibility of gradual non-violent progress was buried. In relation to these events, the educational movement quickly became politicized and split into separate opposing groups and movements. The crisis of the Enlightenment was aggravated by conservative criticism of its goals and ideals; the enlighteners were accused of bringing confusion into people's minds and discord into society, disrupting the natural, organic development of countries and peoples. The Enlightenment never recovered from these blows. It suddenly disappeared from the stage of history, forcing descendants to wonder what its historical purpose was.

According to some researchers, the Enlightenment is summed up by I.V. Goethe in the tragedy "Faust", assessing the new historical type of man, intensely seeking Truth on the basis of Reason, believing in his creative activity, but at the same time severely mistaken and so far helpless in front of the powerful forces brought to life by himself.

It was a century of great discoveries and great misconceptions, a century about which the Russian enlightener A.N. Radishchev insightfully and aphoristically said in the poem “The Eighteenth Century” (1801 - 1802): “No, you will not be forgotten, the century is crazy and wise, You will be cursed forever, the surprise of everyone will forever.”

The assessment given by the Russian writer with special right can be extended to the entire era because it was at this time that Russia entered the circle of modern European education, learning from it and gaining its independence within this cultural unity. The very concept of “European culture” now has a new meaning, its scope is expanding so much as to fully include the young and rapidly developing culture of Russia.

The purpose of the Enlightenment of the Enlightenment in general for the entire cultural process in the world is very great. Thanks to him, the cultural framework, which previously covered only a small layer of society, significantly expanded.

Equality is what the Enlightenment brought to life. It was precisely the concept of equality that became key to further cultural development. The fact that all people are initially equal and have the same rights to their further development as individuals served as the basis for the creation of the ideals of the Enlightenment.

It is worth noting that the Enlightenment era was characterized by optimistic sentiments associated with the belief that a person can be changed for the better. It is not for nothing that there was another definition of the Enlightenment as the “golden age of utopia.” This utopia referred primarily to changes in political and social foundations. A harmonious society, living according to reason, with a sense of responsibility for each individual person, is the ideal social structure of the utopian enlighteners.

The feudal system gave way to a new bourgeois type of economic relations. But this transition was not very smooth. It was preceded not just by gradual progressive transformations, but by real revolutions that affected various aspects of human life. In philosophy, the leadership of rationalism has emerged, which has replaced metaphysics. That is, it was the mind that began to be revered as the basis of human knowledge and behavior.

England is considered the birthplace of the Enlightenment. Even the church here did not go against the Enlightenment, but accepted its values ​​and ideals. The reconstruction of society after the revolution and civil wars, the strengthening of the rule of law with its desire for equality made England a kind of standard to which other states aspired.

The first to formulate the program of the English Enlightenment, which was also followed in France, was the philosopher John Locke (1632–1704).

Another English educator, philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), also adhered to the idea of ​​equality. He believed that all people are equal by nature, and inequality is the cause of many troubles, such as conflicts, wars, etc. And in order to avoid these troubles, T. Hobbes believed, every person needs to get rid of his selfish passions.

But there were thinkers who held a completely opposite opinion. Thus was born a new direction in philosophy, called the ethics of self-love or reasonable egoism. His followers included the English thinker and writer Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733), as well as the English philosopher and sociologist Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832).

The Age of Enlightenment in France became famous with the names of great thinkers. First of all, Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Denis Diderot and Charles Louis Montesquieu.

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  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment– to make the entire people more educated. That's why the meaning era Enlightenment


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  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment– to make the entire people more educated. That's why the meaning era Enlightenment in general, for the entire cultural process in the world is very large.


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  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment– to make the entire people more educated. That's why the meaning era Enlightened


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  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment– to make the entire people more educated. That's why the meaning era Enlightened. Loading. Download Receive on your phone.


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  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment


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  In the 18th century Germany developed along the capitalist path, but in comparison with England and France... more ».
  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment– to make the entire people more educated.


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  In the 18th century Germany developed along the capitalist path, but in comparison with England and France... more ».
  era Enlightenment (XVII–XVIII bb.) Target Enlightenment– to make the entire people more educated.


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  era Enlightenment in Germany. IN XVIII V. Germany developed along the capitalist path, but in comparison with England and France, this development was slow, belated, and it had to overcome great obstacles.


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  Literature and music era Enlightenment. era Enlightenment
  In the 20-30s XVIII


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  Literature and music era Enlightenment. era Enlightenment in the literature it covers a hundred-year period from 1688 to 1789.
  In the 20-30s XVIII century, prose dominates in literature, the novel of adventures and travels gains popularity.

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